Darwin, Descent of Man. Appleton Baldwin, Modern Political Institutions. Darwin, A Naturalist's Voyage Around the World. Foster, Text Book of Physiology. 5v. Friend, Flowers and Flower-lore. Gray, Anatomy. Scribners Boehm, Capital and Interest. Harpers Bax, Ethics of Socialism. Amsterdam Beaulieu, The Modern State. Little, Brown Lippincott Phila Scribners Scribners Scribners Appleton Appleton Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation. Clarendon Press Huxley, Man's Place in Nature. Humboldt, Cosmos. 5v. Haeckel, The History of Creation. 2v. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics. Huxley, Science and Christian Tradition. Jordan, Footnotes to Evolution. Kingsley, Natural History. 6v. Kingsley, Health and Education, Kelvin, The Constitution of Matter. Le Conte, Evolution and Religious Thought. Macmillan Ely, French and German Socialism. Macmillan Harpers Harpers Appleton Cossa, Taxation: its Principles and Methods. Putnams Putnams Appleton Coulanges, Origin of Property in Land. Scribners Macmillan Scribners Appleton De Tocqueville, Democracy in America. 2v. Century Macmillan Appleton Dunbar, History and Theory of Banking. Putnams Scribners Putnams Scribners Harpers Houghton Mason, The Origins of Invention. Scribners Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics. Macmillan Goodnow, Comparative Administrative Law. 2v. Putnams 2v. Putnams Doubleday Doubleday Harpers Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence. Longmans Macmillan Amsterdam Hadley, Roman Law: Its History and System. Appleton Appleton Hall, International Law. Clarendon Press Roemer, Origins of the English People. Romanes, Mental Evolution in Man. Appleton Hyslop, Democracy: A Study in Government. Appleton Jenks, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages. Johnston, History of American Politics. Appleton Lieber, Civil Liberty and Self Government. Scribners White, Natural History of Selbourne. 2v. Appleton Henry Holt Appleton 2v. Appleton And Law. Henry Holt Putnams Whewell, History of the Inductive Sciences. Political Science, Economics, Adams, The Science of Finance. Aristotle, Politics (tr. Jowett). 2v. Clarendon Press Ginn Mackenzie, Introduction to Social Philosophy, Playfair, Subjects of Social Welfare. Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage. Houghton Clarendon Press Clarendon Press Maine, Ancient Law. Henry Holt Maine, Early History of Institutions. Henry Holt Macmillan Putnams in any written literature. It belongs to that class of idioms which are called monosyllabic. Every word consists of only one syllable. The roots or original characters of the Chinese are only 214 in number, and it is supposed that a minute analysis would reduce them to a still Macmillan smaller amount. Each of these characters Scribners Clarendon Press Richie, The Principles of State Interference. Richie, Natural Rights. Rae, Contemporary Socialism. Putnams Rannie, Outline of the English Constitution. Scribners represents one word, and each word an idea. Shaw, Municipal Government in Great Britain. Century Shaw, Municipal Government in Continental Europe. Story, Equity Jurisprudence. Story, The Conflict of Laws. Story, Constitution of the United States. Stubbs, Select Charters. Simon, Government of M. Thiers. 2v. Turner, The Germanic Constitution. Von Holst, Constitutional History of the United Scribners language. Taken singly, they express the principal objects or ideas that are suggested in Century Little, Brown the common intercourse of life; and combined, Amsterdam according to obvious analogies, they are made Little, Brown Harpers to comprehend the entire field of thought. Cassell Thus the character, which originally repreDoubleday Clarendon Press sents the word "hand," is so modified and Clarendon Press combined with others, as to denote every variEngland. 3v. Clarendon Press ety of manual labor and occupation. The Clarendon Press Chinese characters are written from top to Little, Brown bottom, and from right to left. 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Woolsey, Communism and Socialism. Scribners Early Literature. The first Greek writers were Homer and Hesiod, 1000 B. C., Tyrtæus and Archilochus, 700 B. C., and Alcæus, Sappho, and Anacreon, 600. The first Latin writers were Cluatua, Ennius, and Terentius, 200 B. C. The first British writers, Gildas, Nennius and Bede, 500 and 600 A. D. The first German writers, Eginhard, Wallafrid, and Rabanus, 800 A. D. The first French writers, Fort, Gregory, and Maralfe, 500 A. D. The first Spanish, Anian, Fulgentius, and Martin, 500 A. D. The first Polish, Yaraslof and Nestor in 1000 A. D. The first Italian, Gracian, Falcand and Campanus in 1100 A. D. CHINESE LITERATURE. The antiquity of Chinese literature is proportionate to that of the language, and its development has been greatly promoted by the early invention of the art of printing, which has been known in China for at least The Chinese literature is rich in works in every department of composition, both verse and prose. Their scholars are fond of discussions in moral philosophy, but they have also numerous books of history, geography, voyages, dramas, romances, tales, and fictions of all kinds. The labors of various European travelers and students have given us specimens of almost every description of Chinese literature. In legislation, we have a translation of the Penal Code of the Empire; in politics and morals, the sacred books of Confucius, and his successor Meng-Tsew; in philology and belleslettres, a well-executed dictionary of the language; several translations and abstracts of history; and selections from the drama, criticism, and romance. Among the most successful explorers of the field of Chinese literature, we may mention Staunton, Davis, Morrison, Klaproth, and Remusat, who have followed up the earlier researches of the Jesuits at Pekin, and elucidated a subject which had been supposed to be inaccessible. Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the West in the destruction nine hundred years. The Chinese language of the Alexandrian brary; for their Emperor, presents a remarkable specimen of philological Chee-whang-tee, ordered all writings to be structure, which for ingenuity of arrangement destroyed, that everything might begin anew and copiousness of expression, is not surpassed from his reign; consequently their books and records were recovered with great difficulty by other hand, many of the most sagacious critics succeeding emperors. place the origin of writing in Greece at a much later period. GREEK LITERATURE. The origin of Greek literature, or the inThe language which we call Greek was not tellectual cultivation of the Greeks, by written the primitive language of Greece, for that works, dates at a period of which we have country was originally inhabited by the Pelasgi, few historical memorials. The first period of whose language had become extinct in the Grecian cultivation, which extends to eighty time of Herodotus. With regard to its origin, years after the Trojan war, is called the antethere is a diversity of opinion among the Homeric period, and is destitute of any literlearned, although it evidently forms a branch ary remains properly deserving the name. Of of the extensive family of languages known the poets previous to Homer, nothing satisfacby the name of the Indo-Germanic. It has tory is known. The most ancient was Olen, existed as a spoken language for at least three who is mentioned by Pausanias. He was folthousand years, and, with the exception of the lowed by Linus, Orpheus, Musæus, and others, Arabic and the English, has been more widely but the poems which are circulated under their diffused than any other tongue. Out of Greece, names cannot be regarded as their genuine it was spoken in a great part of Asia Minor, of productions. It was in the Greek colonies of the South of Italy and Sicily, and in other Asia Minor that the first great impulse was regions which were settled by Grecian colonies. given to the development of literature; and The Greek language is divided into four lead-among them we find the earliest authentic ing dialects, the Eolie, Ionic, Doric, and Attic, specimens of Greek poetry and historical combeside which there are several secondary dialects. The four principal dialects may, however, be reduced to two, the Hellenic-Doric, and the Ionic-Attic, the latter originally spoken in the northern part of Peloponnesus and Attica, the former in other parts of Greece. In each of these dialects, there are celebrated authors. To the Ionic dialect, belong in part the works of the oldest poets, Homer, Hesiod, Theognis; of some prose writers, especially Herodotus and Hippocrates; and the poems of Pindar, Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus. The Doric dialect was of the greatest antiquity. We have few remains of Doric prose, which consists chiefly of mathematical or philosophical writings. After Athens became the center of literary cultivation in Greece, the works of Eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and so forth, were regarded as standards of style, and made the Attic the common dialect of literature. Poetry, however, was not written in the Attic dialect. The peculiarities of Homer were imitated by all subsequent poets except the dramatists, Next to the Homerida, come the Cyclic and even they assumed the Doric to a certain poets, whose works embrace the whole circle degree in their choruses, for the sake of the of mythology and tradition, describing the solemnity of expression which belonged to the origin of the gods and of the world, the adoldest liturgies of the Greeks. According to ventures of the Heroic times, the Argonautic the general tradition, Cadmus the Phoenician expedition, the labors of Hercules and Theseus, was the first who introduced the alphabet into the principal events of the Theban and Trojan Greece. His alphabet consisted of but six-wars, and the fortunes of the Greeks after the teen letters; four are said to have been invented by Palamedes in the Trojan war, and four more by Simonides of Ceos. It has been maintained, however, by some persons, that the art of writing was practiced by the Pelasgi before the time of Cadmus. On the position. Situated on the borders of a noble sea, enjoying a climate of delicious softness and purity, abounding in the most nutritious and tempting products of nature, whose fertility was not inferior to its beauty, these colonies possessed a character of refined voluptuousness which, if not favorable to the performance of great deeds, allured the dreamy spirit to poetical contemplations, and was manifested in noble creations of the fancy, which have not been surpassed in the progress of cultivation. Living near the scene of the Trojan war, the bards devoted their first poems to the celebration of Grecian heroism. With them commenced the second period of Greek literature, which we call the Epic age. Of these, Homer alone has survived. We have from him the two great poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, with several hymns and epigrams. He gave his name to the Homeridæ, an Ionian school of minstrels, who preserved the old Ilomeric and epic style, and who are probably the authors of much that has been ascribed to Homer himself. fall of Troy. A transition between these historic poets and the later school of Ionian minstrelsy is formed by Hesiod, who conducted poetry back from Asia Minor into Greece. Of the sixteen works ascribed to him, we have the Theogony, the Shield of Hercules, and Works and Days, the last, an agricultural poem, pure necessary existence, belonged Xenophanes interspersed with moral reflections and prudential maxims. the class of men called Sophists first rose into importance as public teachers. Of these, the most distinguished names that have been preserved to us are Gorgias of Leontium, Protagoras of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, Prodicus of Cos, Trasimæus, and Tisias. They were especially devoted to the subjects of politics and Parmenides; to the later Eleatic, Melissus and Diagoras. Until about the commenceThe third period commences with the ment of the 90th Olympiad, the philosophers growth of lyric poetry, of apologues and phi- and their disciples were dispersed throughout losophy, with which history gained a new the various Grecian cities. Athens subsedevelopment and a higher degree of certainty.quently became their chief residence, where Lyric poetry sprung up on the decline of the Epic school, and was much cultivated from the beginning of the epoch of the Olympiads (776 B. C.) to the first Persian war. The poems of this period are considered among the most valuable productions of Grecian literature. Many of them resembled the epic, and contained the subjects of heroic song. They and eloquence, but also made a study of the were sung by bands of youths and maidens, accompanied by instrumental music. Among the most celebrated of the lyric poets were Archilochus of Paros, the inventor of the Iambus; Tyrtæus, Terpander, and Alcman, whose martial strains enkindled the valor of the Spartans; Callimachus of Ephesus, inventor of the elegaic measure; Simonides and Anacreon of Ceos; the impassioned Sappho of Mitylene; Stesichorus, Hipponax, and Pindar. Many didactic poems, fables, and proverbs were written during this period, and served to prepare the way for prose composition. The philosophy of this age was marked by its constant reference to practical affairs. Among its expounders we may consider the seven wise men of Greece, as they are called (Periander, or according to some, Epimenides of Crete, Pittacus, Thales, Solon, Bias, Chilo, and Cleobulus), of whom six acquired their fame, not by the teaching of speculative abstractions, but by their admirable wisdom in the affairs of life, and their skill in the offices of state. Their celebrated sayings are the maxims of experience, applied to the practical relations of life. But with the progress of intellectual culture, a taste for speculative inquiries was unfolded. This resulted in the establishment of the Ionic philosophy by Thales, the Italian, by Pythagoras, and the older and later Eleatic. With the development of these schools, we are brought to the scientific period of Greek literature. The Ionic school ascribed a material origin to the universe. Its principal followers were Pherecydes, Anaximander, Anaxamines, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, and Archilaus of Miletus. Of the Pythagorean school, which explained the organization of the world by number and measure, were Ocellus Lucanus, Timæus of Locris, Epicharmus, Theages, Archytas, Philolaus, and Eudoxus. To the older Eleatic school, which cherished a more sublime, but less intelligible conception of the origin of the world, assuming the fact of a natural sciences, mathematics, the theory of the fine arts, and philosophy. Professing the art of logic as a trade, they were less earnest in the pursuit of truth than in the construction of plausible arguments. Their fallacious pretenses awakened the honest indignation of Socrates, who not only became their zealous antagonist, but gave a vigorous and original impulse to the progress of philosophy. This shrewd and subtle reasoner opened a new direction to philosophical research, turning it to the study of human nature and of the laws of psychology and ethics, instead of barren speculations and theories. Without leaving any written record of his genius, he is known at the present day by the affectionate and beautiful memorials which have been consecrated to his character in the productions of his disciples. Among these, Plato was pre-eminent by the force and comprehensiveness of his reason, the marvelous keenness of his insight in the region of transcendental ideas, the vigor and acuteness of his logical faculties, and the winning sweetness and grace of expression, which lend a charm to his writings that has never been equaled in philosophical literature. The masterly conversations of Socrates, in which he expounded the principles of his philosophy in the streets and market place of Athens, are reproduced with admirable dramatic effect, in the glowing pages of his eloquent disciple. The progress of history kept pace in Grecian cultivation with the development of philosophy. Among the oldest historical prose writers, are Cadmus, Dionysius, and Hecatæus of Miletus, Hellanicus of Mitylene, Pherecydes of Scyros. After them appears Herodotus, who has received the name of the Homer of history. He was followed by Thucydides, the grave, condensed, and philosophical historian of the Pelopennesian war. Strongly contrasted with his sternness and energy, is Xenophon, whose limpid narrative flows on with the charming facility of a graceful stream, presenting a de lightful specimen of the tranquil beauty of Greek prose in its most simple form. These three historians distinguished the period from 450 to 400 B. C., during which time we have to notice the introduction of a new class of poetical creations. A poets of Greece, passed from Athens to Alexandria; the nation itself was absorbed in the progress of Roman conquest; Greek literature ceased to give birth to original productions; and its brilliant career became the subject of history. It is the oldest literature of which any remains have come down to modern times. With a rich poetical coloring, a profound sentiment of humanity, and a lofty religious faith, it sustains a most intimate relation to the development of the intellect and the moral and political history of the race. The popular festivals which were celebrated after the vintage, with rude songs and dances, HEBREW LITERATURE. led to the gradual creation of the drama. The literature of the ancient Hebrews, apart more artistic form was given to the wild from its religious character and claims, prechoruses in honor of Bacchus; the recitation sents a curious and important subject of invesof fables by an intermediate speaker was intro-tigation. duced into the performances; and soon the games of the vintage festival were repeated on other occasions. The spirit of the drama was thus cherished, until the appearance of Eschylus, who may be deemed the author of the dramatic art in Greece. He divided the story into different portions, substituted the dialogue The Hebrew language is one of the oldest for recitation by a single person, and assigned branches of the numerous family of languages the various parts to skillful actors. The three which have received the name of Semitic, on great tragic writers are Eschylus, Sophocles, account of the supposed descent of the nations and Euripides, while the most distinguished by which they were spoken, from Shem, the rank in comedy is held by Cratinus, Eupolis, son of Noah. These are the Chaldaic, the Crates, and especially Aristophanes. Aramaic, the Hebrew, the Syriac, the Arabic, During this period we find several didactic the Phoenician, and the Ethiopian. The hisand lyric poets, while the sister art of elo-tory of the language has been divided by many quence was illustrated by the names of Lysias, critics into four periods. I. From Abraham Demosthenes, Eschines, Antiphon, Gorgias, and Isocrates. The succeeding period, which is usually called the Alexandrine, was characterized by the prevalence of a critical spirit; the luxuriant bloom of the earlier Greek literature had passed away; and the fresh creative impulses of genius were made to yield to the love of speculation and the influence of erudition. The glowing imaginative philosophy of Plato was succeeded by the more rigid system of Aristotle, who founded the Peripatetic school, and gave order and precision to the principles of reason ing. With the passion for subtle analysis, which was the characteristic of his mind, he drew a sharp line of distinction between logic and rhetoric, ethics and politics, physics and metaphysics, thus enlarging the boundaries of philosophy, and establishing a system which exercised an undisputed supremacy for ages. The dogmatic tendencies of Aristotle found their counterpart in the skeptical principles of which Pyrrho of Elis was the most distinguished advocate. The same principles prevailed to a certain extent in the Middle and New Academies founded by Arcesilaus and Carneades, while the Socratic philosophy was modified by the disciples of the Stoic school, established by Zeno, and of the Epicurean, which bears the name of its celebrated founder. At length the intellectual scepter, which had been so long wielded by the philosophers and to Moses. II. From Moses to Solomon. III. From Solomon to Ezra. IV. From Ezra to the end of the age of the Maccabees, when it was gradually lost in the modern Aramaic and became a dead language. The differences, however, which can be traced in the language are so slight, that a sounder division would be into only two periods, the first extending from the time of Moses to the reign of Hezekiah, and the second from the reign of Hezekiah to its final extinction as a spoken language. The written characters or letters, which date from the time of Solomon, were the same as the Phoenician. During the Babylonish captivity, the Hebrews received from the Chaldees the square character in common use, and, in the time of Ezra, the old Hebrew manuscripts were copied in these characters. The punctuation of the language was not settled until after the seventh century of the Christian era. The accents, vowels, points, and divisions into words were also introduced at a later period. The poetical and religious sentiment was the foundation of Hebrew literature. Lyric poetry received a rich development under David, to whom are ascribed several noble specimens of song and elegy. The fragments of didactic poetry which bear the name of Solomon are stamped with a character of practical wisdom, and often exhihit an energy of expression, which authorizes us to class them among the most extraordinary productions of |