But to this distinction are to be traced such double forms in the preterite as sang and sung, sprang and sprung, occasionally used in English even yet. About one-half of the strong verbs in English had the same stem-vowel in the Anglo-Saxon participle as in the plural preterite indicative; drincan, for example, had dranc in the first and the third singular, and drunc as the plural stem and the stem of the participle. When then in English we find drunk side by side with drank in the preterite, we are troubled to tell whether the participle drunk has elbowed its way into that tense, or whether drunk is a survival of the AngloSaxon plural of that tense.

3. The Prefix ge.-The prefix ge used in Anglo-Saxon with many parts of speech, especially with the past participle of verbs, passed in English into y or i, as in Shakespeare's y-clept, y-clad, y-slaked, and disappeared almost completely in his time.

4. The Potential Mode.-Some grammarians do not lay down an Anglo-Saxon potential mode. But the originals of our may, can, might, must, would, could, and should were used in Anglo-Saxon as we use them now, if we except our present perfect and past perfect of this mode. Examples in abundance might be quoted.

5. The Future Tense. There was no simple future in Anglo-Saxon-one with personal terminations containing some trace of the substantive verb, as in Latin; or made up of forms of the verb have, as the French are of the corresponding verb avoir. This absence of a simple future, perpetuated in English, and shared by other Teutonic languages, has been commented upon by many and accounted for by some-notably by George P. Marsh.

The duties of the future tense the Anglo-Saxons laid in

part upon the shoulders of the present. For the rest they seized upon the verbs of volition and necessity, willan and sculan, our will and shall, words sternly "indicative of a present purpose, determination, or duty," not of "prophecy or of expectation, prediction, or even hope," and made a future by combining their present indicative forms with infinitives. This method survives in English-as, indeed, does the other, in such expressions as I go, but I return; Tomorrow is Saturday-the two words retaining in these combinations much of their original force. So also they did in Anglo-Saxon. But the English distinction between shall and will, in the several persons, the Anglo-Saxon had not reached. This distinction Marsh pronounces a "verbal quibble, serving no end but to embarrass," a distinction. which he predicts will soon disappear.

6. The Compound Tenses.-The present perfect and the past perfect were formed originally in Anglo-Saxon by prefixing to the past participles of transitive verbs the forms of habban (have); and to the past participles of intransitive verbs, the forms of wesan, or beon (be), and this both in the indicative and in the subjunctive. But habban encroached upon the territory of beon. We form these tenses in the same way, and have continued and extended the use of have in place of be before intransitive participles. March concedes that "Have with an intransitive does not bear analysis;" but says, "We do not want two tense-signs for the same tense." And so have, displacing be (which before intransitives" would be theoretically more correct," Whitney, also, allows), has come to be the common auxiliary in these two compound tenses in the active voice.

Still, be is found in these tenses as an auxiliary, especially with verbs of motion.

When they were come out of the synagogue.—Mark i. 29. Sir Roger is gone out of the club.-Addison. The time is gone by.-J. S. Mill. The middle of August is come at last.-Kingsley. Thou art fled to brutish beasts.-Shakespeare. They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, were slunk.-Milton. The mountains are vanished.—Byron.

We have dropped the present perfect and the past perfect subjunctive, and have added the future perfect indicative. This is formed by prefixing to a past participle some form of shall and will and the infinitive have.

It is worth noticing that occasionally in early Anglo-Saxon we find the participles, in the active voice of these compound tenses, agreeing in gender, number, and case with the noun or pronoun in the accusative. This is seen in the ending of the participle, and explains the origin of these compound tenses. The form of habban used had the noun or pronoun as its object, and this object was modified by the participle used as an adjective. But when the primitive idea of possession had faded out of habban in these combinations, and the function of qualification had disappeared from the participle, then the verb became a mere formative element; and, uniting with the participle, formed a compound tense. How completely the idea of possession has faded out of has, have, and had in these tenses is shown by the fact that we can say of one not only, He has found his coat, but, He has lost his coat; though in the one case he has the garment, and in the other we affirm that he has it not. So, too, when has or have or had is used with an intransitive participle, as in, He has gone, its force as a form-word only is retained. And to this state it had come even in Anglo-Saxon.

7. The Progressive Form.—Continuing action or being in any tense of the English verb in the active voice can be expressed by uniting the present participle of that verb with

the forms of be in that tense. We can trace back this progressive form to the Anglo-Saxon, in at least the present, past, and future tenses.

8. Do, as a Substitute for Other Verbs.-The use of do to supply the place of a verb in the preceding clause is a frequent idiom of the language. It prevents repetition, and so is euphonic; it abbreviates the expression, and hence is energetic. This use of do goes back to Anglo-Saxon. While standing in the place of some preceding verb, this do does not necessarily stand for the precise form previously used. That precise form cannot always be repeated instead of the substitute, cannot always be repeated after it.

...

Praying him to raise up her son as he did the widow Drusiana. -Ælfric. Women will again study Greek, as Lady Jane Grey did. -Arnold. Nothing worse happens to you than does to all nations.— Burke. Dalgetty bores you almost as much as he would do in real life. -Hutton. The face shines as the moon does when looking through a cloud.-Dowden. He noticed the change, and . . . measured the extent better than I had done.-Martineau. A crowd of birds . . . came to hear the saint preach, as fish did to hear St. Anthony.-Lecky. By money, he has become a lord of men, as Tamburlaine did by force.Dowden. When the inflections were dying out . . . as they did very early.-Marsh. If I asked for her portrait, as I shall do some day.Kingsley. He would rather make me put it on than ask me to let him do it.-George Eliot. Proceeding, as it does, from the sensitiveness of her love.-Dowden. So far from writing, as you seem to expect me to do, a letter of condolence.-Hamerton. Imagine them growing gradually larger, as they actually do.-Tyndall. Must stand or fall on its own merits, as others have done before it.-Lowell. Grandcourt got more pleasure out of this notion than he could have done in winning.—George Eliot.

Note the tenses and modes of the substituted do; note, too, that it may be an infinitive. Note the tenses and modes of the verb for which do is substituted. Note that

do may stand for an infinitive or a participle. Note that do may stand for a transitive verb, or be substituted for an intransitive. This last is a use denied it by the critics.

common.

9. Do Emphatic.-The employment of do in the present and imperfect to add energy to the expression is exceedingly This use of it goes far back in English, even into Anglo-Saxon, but did not become general until the end of the fifteenth century. Lounsbury, Mätzner, March, and others think that this emphatic do grew out of do used as a substitute. The transition, for instance, from, "The reasons which led Tyrwhitt to come to the conclusions he did are not hard to find " to The reasons which led Tyrwhitt to come to the conclusions he did come to are not hard to find," is easy and natural.

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In

10. The Passive Voice.-Professor Hadley points out that in the Celtic languages the verb has the r in the passive ending of its simple tenses. The Latin r in the passive is the s of the reflexive pronoun se, after undergoing rhotacism. The Swedish and the Danish have their passive in s, and the Icelandic in sk or st, from their reflexive sik,-the German sich. its endings of the middle voice throughout, and in those of its passive, except the first aorist and the future, the Greek repeats the personal pronoun of the same person as that of the subject. In these languages it is seen that the passive endings are, or are borrowed from, a middle voice, in which the action expressed by the verb is made to return upon the agent.

The striking thing about the English verb is, that, like the Anglo-Saxon and the German, it has, if we except the past participle, no passive form whatever. The passive of an English verb in any tense is made by prefixing to the past