Of the Christians enumerated above the following are the subdivisions as given in the official returns :

The following statistics are those of the census of 1881 :

In 1889 the total expenditure on education in India was 26,370,128 rupees, against 671,000 in 1865, and 394,000 in 1858. Of the sum spent in 1889, 4,646,615 came from local rates, 1,309,466 from municipal funds, 7,334,461 from fees, 5,710,030 from subscriptions, endowments, &c., 7,369,556 was granted by the Government.

The following was the educational expenditure (in millions and two decimals) at the dates quoted :—

At the head of the national system of education in India there are the three Universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, which, though merely examining bodies, have numerous affiliated colleges in which a prescribed higher education is given than at the schools. Normal schools have been established in every province for training teachers; and a staff of inspecting officers visit all schools on the departmental lists. Medical colleges furnish a limited number of graduates and a larger number of certificated practitioners who do duty at hospitals and dispensaries, or serve in the army medical department. Engineering and other technical schools have also increased, and there are a few art schools.

The following table shows the number of students who matriculated at the three Universities for the years quoted:

The following table embraces the principal statistics for 1888, as to the number of the various classes of schools and the pupils ::

Of the total number of educational institutions in India (viz., over 133,000), 18,278 are public, 60,026 are aided, and 55,000 are private and unaided.

Since the appointment of a commission, in 1883, to investigate the whole system of education in India, the results have been to place public instruction on a broader and more popular basis, to encourage private enterprise in teaching, to give a more adequate recognition to indigenous schools, and to provide that the education of the people shall advance at a more equal pace along with the instruction of the higher classes. Female education and the instruction of certain backward classes of the community, such as Mohammedans, received special attention.

One result of the spread of education has been a great increase in the number of books and newspapers. In 1887 there were 315 vernacular newspapers published regularly in 12 different languages; and in the previous year 8,877 books and magazines appeared, more than nine-tenths being in native languages.

Justice and Crime.

The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and the LieutenantGovernorships of Bengal and the N.W. Provinces have each a high court, supreme both in civil and criminal business, but with an ultimate appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in England. Of the minor provinces, the Punjab has a chief court, with three judges; the Central Provinces and Oudh have each one judicial commissioner. Lower Burma has a judicial commissioner and a recorder. For Assam, the high court at Calcutta is the highest judicial authority, except in the three hill districts, where the chief commissioner of Assam is judge without appeal in civil and criminal cases. In each district the collector-magistrate' is judge both of first instance and appeal.

Many native stipendiary judges and magistrates are now employed everywhere, and in most provinces a large number of native gentlemen are appointed honorary magistrates. The number of criminal courts has been increasing, and the average length of criminal sentences has decreased.

The following table gives (in thousands) the number of persons brought to trial and of those convicted in criminal cases for the years quoted :

In 1887, 349 persons were sentenced to death, 2,027 to transportation, and 156,798 to imprisonment. There were 819 convictions for the crime of murder, 10,817 for cattle-theft, 63,815 for ordinary theft, and 17,475 for housebreaking.

The total police of that year were 144,158 in number. Of the 144,000 police, 55,000 are armed with firearms and 46,000 with swords.

In 1887 there were 33 central gaols, 194 district gaols, and 524 subsidiary gaols. The following table gives the number of prisoners in gaol at the end of the years quoted :

The number of prisoners punished with whipping has been greatly lessened, the number for 1887 being 15,259, against 75,223 in 1878.

Finance.

According to the Act of 1858, the revenue and expenditure of the Indian Empire are subjected to the control of the Secretary in Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of the revenue can be made without the concurrence of a majority of the Council.

The subjoined table gives, in tens of rupees (Rx.), the total gross amount of the actual revenue and expenditure of India, distinguishing Indian and home expenditure, in each of the financial years ending March 31, 1879, and 1884-88 :

The nominal value of the rupee is 28., but for some years the actual value has not exceeded 1s. 5d., and has frequently been below that figure.

The following table shows the items of revenue and expen diture for 1888-89 (revised estimate) and 1889-90 (budget estimate) :

In addition to the above expenditure a capital expenditure on productive public works not charged against revenue is set down for 1888-89 at 31,914,700 rupees, and for 1889-90 at 23,490,900 rupees.

The current expenditure in 1887, apart from capital outlay on railways and from local and municipal funds, was Rx. 61,492,000, as compared with Rx. 33,852,000 in 1857.

The following table exhibits the growth of the three most important sources of the public revenue of India, namely, land, opium, and salt, in the financial years 1879 and 1884-88

The most important source of public income to which rulers in India have in all ages looked is the land. The land revenue of India, as of all Eastern countries, may be regarded less as a tax on the landowners than as the result of a joint proprietorship in the soil, under which the produce is divided between the ostensible proprietors and the State. For details as to the nature of the different tenures of land that prevail in India see the YEARBook for 1886, p. 799. See also under AGRICULTURE.

The land revenue was contributed in 1887-88 as follows:

Next in importance to the land-revenue as a great source of Indian receipts is the income derived from the opium monopoly. The cultivation of the poppy is prohibited in British India, except under permit or licence, the cultivators being bound to sell the produce to the officers of the Government at a certain fixed price. It is manufactured or purified and packed at the Government factories of Patna and Ghazipore, and thereafter sent to Calcutta, to be sold by public auction to merchants, who export it to China and elsewhere. In the Bombay Presidency the revenue is derived from the opium which is manufactured in the native States of Malwa and Gujerat, on which passes are given, at the price of 607. per chest, weighing 140 lbs. net, to merchants who wish to send opium to the port of Bombay.