the amount of more than two-thirds, of tea. During the five years from 1884 to 1888, the quantities and value of the exports of tea from China to the United Kingdom were as follows:

Besides tea, the only other important article of export from China to Great Britain is raw silk, the value of which amounted to 2,605,6647. in 1884, to 954,7257. in 1885, to 760,6297. in 1886, to 899,9757. in 1887, to 928,2251. to 1888. Manufactured cotton and woollen goods, the former of the value of 4,803,2267., and the latter of 638,0687., in the year 1888, constitute the bulk of the imports of British produce into the Chinese Empire, exclusive of the goods passing in transit through the colony of Hong Kong.

The collection of the revenue on the Chinese foreign trade and the administration of the lights on the coast of China are under the management of the Imperial Customs Department, the head of which is a foreigner (British), under whom is a large staff of European, American, and Chinese subordinates, the department being organised somewhat similarly to the English Civil Service. It has an agency in London.

Shipping and Navigation.

During the year 1888, 28,161 vessels, of 22,307,859 tons (23,249 being steamers of 21,311,651 tons), entered and cleared Chinese ports. Of these 15,115, of 14,069,260 tons, were British; 9,054, of 5,744,529 tons, Chinese; 2,762, of 1,570,035 tons, German; 326, of 281,900 tons, Japanese; 234, of 84,455 tons, American; 176, of 268,644 tons, French.

Internal Communications.

China is traversed in all directions by numerous roads, and, though none are paved or metalled, and all are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried on partly over them, but chiefly by means of numerous canals and navigable rivers. A first attempt to introduce railways into the country was made by the construction, without the sanction of the Government of China, of a short line from Shanghai to Woosung, twelve miles in length. It was opened for traffic June 3, 1876, but closed again in 1877, and taken up after having been purchased by the Chinese authorities. A small railway was constructed from the K'ai-p'ing mines for conveyance of coal to Hok ou, situated on the Petang, a river ten miles north of the Peiho, and was subsequently extended to deep water on the Petang. A continuation has been completed from Petang, via Taku, to Tientsin; the two lines making a length of about 86 miles. An imperial decree was issued at the end of 1888 ordering the extension of this line from Tientsin along the Peiho to Tungchow, within a few miles of Peking, but this was subsequently rescinded. In the summer of 1889 the Emperor ordered the construction of a line across the north-west of China from Peking to Hankow on the Yangtze River, and committed the task to the two Viceroys of the provinces through which the projected railway is to run, Li Hung Chang and Chang Chih-tung, the latter official

having been transferred to Hankow from the Viceroyalty of Canton for the purpose. But up to the present moment no decided steps have been taken to carry out the scheme. The imperial Chinese telegraphs are being rapidly extended all over the Empire. There is a line between Peking and Tientsin, one which connects the capital with the principal places in Manchuria up to the Russian frontier on the Amour and the Ussuri; while Newchwang, Chefoo, Shanghai, Yangchow, Soochow, all the seven treaty ports on the Yangtze, Canton Fatshan, Woochow, Lungchow, and all the principal cities in the Empire are now connected with each other and with the capital. The line from Canton westerly has penetrated to Yunnan-fu, the capital of Yunnan province, and beyond it to Manwyne, near the borders of Burmah. Shanghai is also in communication with Foochow, Amoy, Kashing, Shaoshing, Ningpo, &c. Lines have been constructed between Foochow and Canton, and between Taku, Port Arthur, and Soul, the capital of Corea; and the line along the Yangtze Valley has been extended to Chungking in Szechuen province. By an arrangement recently made with the Russian telegraph authorities the Chinese and Siberian lines in the Amour Valley are to be joined, so that there will be direct overland communication between Peking and Europe.

The postal work of the Empire is carried on, under the Minister of War, by means of post-carts and runners. In the eighteen provinces are 8,000 offices for post-carts, and scattered over the whole of the Chinese territories are 2,040 offices for runners. There are also numerous private postal couriers, and during the winter a service between the office of the Foreign Customs in Peking and the outports.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures in ordinary use at the treaty ports and in the intercourse with foreigners are as follows::

MONEY.

The sole official coinage of China is the copper cash, of which about 1,600-1,700=1 haikwan tael, and about 22=1 penny. Large payments are made by weight of silver bullion, the standard being the Liang or tael. The haikwan (or customs) tael, being one tael weight of pure silver, was equal in 1888 to 4s. 83d., or 4.25 haikwan tael to a pound sterling.

There are no national gold and silver coins in China, and foreign coins are looked upon but as bullion, and usually taken by weight.

=1 Fun (Candaren).

=

1 Tsien (Mace).

1 Liang (Tael) = 14 oz. avoirdupois by treaty.

=1 Kin (Catty) = 1 lbs.

=1 Tan (Picul) = 133 lbs.

=-1 Sheng.

CAPACITY.

"

=1 Tou (holding from 6 to 10 Kin of rice and measuring from 1·13 to 1.63 gallon). Commodities, even liquids, such as oil, spirits, &c., are commonly bought and sold by weight.

In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China, the Chik of 14 English inches has been adopted as the legal standard. The standards of weight and length vary all over the Empire, the Chik, for example, ranging from 9 to 16 English inches, and the Chang ( = 10 Chik) in proportion; but at the treaty ports the use of the foreign treaty standard of Chih and Chang is becoming common.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. OF CHINA IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Envoy and Minister.-Hsieh Tajen.

English Secretary.-Sir Halliday Macartney, K.C.M.G.

2. OF GREAT BRITAIN IN CHINA.

Envoy, Minister, and Chief Superintendent of British Trade.-Sir John Walsham, Bart. Appointed Nov. 24, 1885.

Secretary.-H. Howard, C.B.

There are British Consular representatives at Peking, Amoy, Canton. Chefoo, Chinkiang, Foo-chow-foo, Hankow, Ichang, Kiukiang, Kiungchow, Newchwang, Ningpo, Pakhoi, Shanghai (C.G.), Swatow, Taiwan, Tamsui, Tien-tsin, Wênchow, Wuhu.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning China. 1. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Catalogue of the Chinese Customs Collection at the Austro-Hungarian Universal Exhibition. Shanghai, 1873.

Catalogue of the Chinese Collection at the Paris Exhibition. Shanghai, 1878.

Catalogue of the Chinese Collection at the London Fisheries Exhibition. Shanghai, 1883. And the International Health Exhibition. London, 1884.

Customs Gazette, Shanghai; published quarterly.

Reports and Statistics relating to Opium in China. Shanghai, 1881.

Returns of Trade at the Treaty Ports in China for the year 1887. Part I. Abstracts of Trade and Customs Revenue Statistics. Part II. Statistics of cach Port. 4. Shanghai, 1888. Correspondence respecting the State of Affairs in China. London, 1885.

Report on the Culture, Production, and Manufacture of Silk in China. Shanghai, 1881. Correspondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty of Tientsin. Presented to the House of Commons. 4. London, 1871.

Treaty of Friendship and Commerce between Her Majesty and the King of Corca. London, 1884.

Report of the Delegates of the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce on the Trade of the Upper Yagtste River. Presented to Parliament. Fol. London, 1870.

Commercial Reports from H.M. Consuls in China for 1889. 8. London, 1889.

Report by Mr. Arthur Nicolson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Opium Trade in China, dated Peking, February 25, 1878, in Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation. Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.

Report by Mr. Hosie of a Journey through the Provinces of Ssu-Ch'uan, Yunnan, and Kuei Chou, 1883. London, 1884; and through Central Ssu-Ch'uan in 1884. London, 1885. Report by Mr. L. O. Hopkins on the Island of Formosa. London, 1885, Report by Mr. H. E. Fulford on a Journey in Manchuria, China. No. 2. London, 1887. Report by Mr. Bourne of a Journey in South-Western China. London, 1888. Trade of Great Britain with China, in Annual Statement of the rade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1888. Imp. 4. London, 1889.

2. NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Anderson (John), Mandalay to Momein : a Narrative of the two Expeditions to Western China of 1868 and 1875 with Colonels E. B. Sladen and Horace Browne. 8. London, 1876.

Baber (E. Colborne), Travels and Researches in Western China: in Supplementary Papers of the Royal Geographical Society. London, 1883.

Bastian (Dr. A.), Die Völker des östlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71.
Boulger (Demetrius), History of China. London, 1882-84.

Carné (L. de), Voyage en Indo-Chine et dans l'empire chinois. Paris, 1872. English version, London, 1872.

China, Population of. Discussion of Data in Behm and Wagner's 'Bevölkerung der Erde,' vii. Gotha, 1882.

China Review, Hong Kong.

China Recorder. Shanghai.

Chinese Army, the. In Blackwood's Magazine. May 1884.

Colquhoun (A. R.), Across Chryse: from Canton to Mandalay. 2 vols. London, 1883.

David (Abbé A.), Journal de mon troisième voyage d'exploration dans l'empire chinois. 2 vols. 18. Paris, 1875.

Davis (Sir John F.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857. Dolittle (-), Social Life of the Chinese. London, 1887.

Douglas (Prof. R. K.), China. London, 1887.

Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Commercial Rela tions of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1872.

Edkins (Joseph, D.D.), Religion in China, containing an Account of the three Religions of the Chinese. 8. London, 1877.

Erner (A. H.), Die Einnahmequellen und der Credit Chinas. Berlin, 1887.

Gill (Captain), The River of Golden Sand. 2 vols. London, 1880.

Gray (Ven. John Henry), China: a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the People. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877.

Hirth (Dr. F.), China and the Roman Orient: Researches into their Ancient and Mediæval Relations as Represented in old Chinese Records. Leipsic, 1885.

Huc (L'Abbé E. R.), L'empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.

James (H. E. M.), The Long White Mountain, or a Journey in Manchuria. London, 1888. Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Shanghai.

Journal of the Pekin Oriental Society. Pekin.

Keane (Prof. A. H.), and Temple (Sir R.), Asia. London, 1882.

Kreitner (G.), Im fernen Osten. 2 vols. Vienna, 1881.

Little (A.), Through the Yangtse Gorges, or Trade and Travel in Western China. London,

1888.

Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870.

Mayers (W. F.), The Chinese Government. New edition by G. M. H. Playfair. Shanghai, 1886.

Medhurst (W. H.), The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 8. London, 1872.

Neuere Nachrichten über die Chinesische Armee. 'Internationale Revue tiber die gesammten Armeen und Flotten.' Mai 1888. Cassel.

Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of British Relations in China. 8. London, 1860. Pallu (Lieut. Léopold), Relation de l'expédition de Chine en 1860, rédigée d'après les documents officiels. 4. Paris, 1864.

Playfair (G. M. H.), Cities and Towns of China. Hong Kong, 1879.

Ratzel (Friedrich), Die Chinesische Auswanderung. 8. Breslau, 1876.

Reclus (Elisée), Nouvelle géographie universelle. Tome VII. Paris, 1882.

Revenue of China, the. Hong Kong, 1885.

Richthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegründeter Studien. Vols. I., II., and IV., and Atlas. 4. Berlin, 1877-85.

Richthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and Nganhwei; and on Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871.

Rocher (E.), La province chinoise de Yünnan. Paris, 1880.

Ross (Rev. J.), The Manchus; or the Reigning Dynasty of China, their Rise and Progress. London, 1880.

Sacharoff (J.), Historische Uebersicht der Bevölkerungsverhältnisse Chinas, in Arbeiten der K. Russ. Gesandtschaft zu Pekin, über China. 2 vols. Berlin, 1858.

Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustände im Süden und Osten Asien's. 8. Stuttgart, 1871.

Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. 6. Paris, 1872.

Simon (E.), China: Religious, Political, and Social, London, 1887.

Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to China vià Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.

Temple (Sir R.), Population Statistics of China, in Journal of the Statist. Soc., vol. 48, 1885, p. 1.

Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom: a Survey of the Geography, Government, &c., of the Chinese Empire. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1883.

Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With Bome Account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.

Wilson (J. H.), Travels and Investigations in the Middle Kingdom. New York, 1888.

COLOMBIA.

(LA REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA.)

Constitution and Government.

THE Republic of Colombia gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and was officially constituted December 27, 1819. This vast Republic split up into Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Republic of New Granada, February 29, 1832. The Constitution of April 1, 1858, changed the Republic into a confederation of eight States, under the name of Confederation Granadina. On September 20, 1861, the convention of Bogotá brought out the confederation under the new name of United States of New Granada, with nine States. On May 8, 1863, an improved Constitution was formed, and the States reverted to the old name ColombiaUnited States of Colombia. The revolution of 1885 brought about another change, and the National Council of Bogotá, composed of three delegates from each State, promulgated the Consti tution of August 4, 1886. The sovereignty of the nine States was abolished, and they became simple departments, their presidents, elected by ballot, being reduced to governors under the direct nomination of the President of the Republic, whose term of office has been prolonged from two to six years, and of course the name was changed; the country is now known as Republic of Colombia

The legislative power rests with a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate, numbering 27 members, is composed of representatives of the nine departments, each deputing three senators; the House of Representatives, numbering 66 (subject to change) members, is elected by universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000 inhabitants.

The President of Colombia exercises his executive functions through seven ministers, or secretaries, responsible to Congress. Congress elects three substitutes, one of whom fills the presidency in case of a vacancy during a president's term of office.

President of the Republic.—Señor Don Dr. Rafael Nuñez; assumed office June 4, 1887.

The departments have retained some of the prerogatives of their old sovereignty, such as the entire management of their finances, &c.; each is presided over by a governor.

Area and Population.

The area of the Republic is estimated to embrace 504,773 English square miles, of which 330,756 square miles are north of the equator, and the remainder south of the equator. According to a census taken in 1870, the