revenue); (4) the income from national land; and (5) various sources, such as a few State manufactures, State railways, and so on. The average taxation per head amounts to 86 fr., of which about 69 fr. go to the State, and the remainder to the local budgets. To the above must be added, the extraordinary receipts -chiefly loans-the revenue inscribed 'pour ordre,' being transferences from one branch of the Administration to another.

The revenue of France during the last three years, including the budget estimates for 1890, has been as follows:

The expenditure under different heads for the last three years, and the budget voted for 1890, is shown from the following table:

The following figures, published by the Direction générale de la Comptabilité publique in March 1889, do not include the 'budget sur ressources spéciales,' and represent the actual verified revenue (inclusive of loans) and expenditure for 12 years :

The figures for 1879-85 are those of the sums actually received and expended, and include ordinary and extraordinary income and expenditure; those for the years 1886 to 1889 are the rectified budget estimates, and those for 1890 are the provisions of the budget.

Since 1869 the budget has nearly doubled. To the budget of 1888 is annexed a statement, showing the deficits of the ordinary budgets from the period anterior to 1814 down to January 1, 1887, as follows:

These figures, however, do not represent the actual deficits arising from the differences between the ordinary revenue and the total expenditure, nor even those arising from the differences between the total revenue

and total expenditure. Moreover, almost uninterruptedly, so as to make it the rule and not the exception, the budgets voted by the representatives of the nation have shown a small surplus, while the 'compte définitif,' published a number of years afterwards, has exhibited a large deficit. The following table shows the progress during the century of the French ́ national debt and its yearly charge:

The following table shows the details of the interest and annuities to be paid under the various heads of the public debt, according to the budget estimates of 1890:

Capitating the consolidated debt, it would amount to 21,241,621,710 francs; the floating debt amounts to 824,962,500 francs bearing interest, and 81,725.700 francs not bearing interest.

The total capital of the French national debt cannot be exactly deter mined, but the most usual estimate is about 32 thousand millions of francs (1,280,000,0007.). M. Leroy Beaulieu's calculation gives 31,718 millions, and, more recently, the items for the middle of 1888 are set forth as follows (life interests being omitted) :

Permanent debt

Redeemable stock.

Obligations and bonds

:

Annuities to various companies, &c.

Floating debt

Total nominal capital

Francs

21,288,000,000

3,937,000,000

902,000,000

2,387,000,000

1,000,000,000

29,514,000,000

£1,180,560,000

According to other authorities the total debt amounts to nearly 36,000 millions of francs (1,440,000,0007.), or about 381. per head of population.

II. LOCAL FINANCE.

The total revenue of all the communes reached 1,019,060,390 francs in 1886, and expenditure 1,060,798,494 francs, while the total communal debt

was 3,020,450,528 francs. The share of Paris in the revenue was 253,425,251 francs; Lyons, 12,506,564 francs; Marseilles, 13,536,304 francs; Bordeaux, 9,054,239 francs. As to the departments, their aggregate revenues reached in 1886 277,694,740 francs, the expenditure 273,990,949 francs, while their aggregate debts amounted to 496,273,844 francs.

The yearly expenditure of the city of Paris is given, in francs, in the subjoined table :

For 1890 the estimates of revenue and expenditure balance at 266,098,136 francs, including 1,214,772 francs extraordinary.

III. PUBLIC PROPERTY.

Apart from a very few railways, the State is owner of but a few forests and other properties, the yearly income of which is insignificant, as is seen from the following table :—

The capitalised value of private property has been the subject of many calculations, which, however, differ too greatly to be considered as reliable. The best estimates, by M. de Foville, put down the aggregate private fortunes at: land, 3,200,000,0007.; buildings, 1,600,000,000Z.; State funds, 1,200,000,000l.; other securities, 2,000,000,000l.; total 8,000,000,000%; while M. Leroy Beaulieu estimates that the total yearly income of the nation reaches about 1,000,000,000l., of which three-fifths is the product of per sonal labour.

Defence.

I. LAND DEFENCES.

France has a coast line of 1760 miles, 1,304 on the Atlantic and 456 on the Mediterranean. Its land frontier extends over 1,575 miles, of which 1,156 miles are along the Belgian, German, Swiss, and Italian frontiers, and 419 along the Spanish frontier.

The whole of France is divided into 18 military regions, each under a general of division, and subdivided into districts, of the same area as the departments, under a general of brigade; Paris and Lyon have each a separate military govern. ment. The fortified places are specially administered by a 'service