Patriarch of Lisbon Portuguese

Of these Cardinals 14 were nominated by Pope Pio IX., and 49 by Leone XIII.

Though primarily belonging to the local Roman Church, the Cardinals are Princes of the Church at large. Those who reside in Rome have a certain yearly allowance, according to circumstances. In early ages the Cardinals were simply the parish rectors of Rome, or deacons of districts. In 1586 the number was finally settled by Sisto V. at seventy. The Cardinals compose the Pope's Council and the various Sacred Congregations, govern the Church while the Pontifical throne is vacant, and elect the deceased Pontiff's successor. They received the distinction of the red hat under Innocenzo IV., during the Council of Lyons, in 1246; and the title of Eminence from Urbano VIII., in 1630.

At the beginning of the year 1889, besides the Pope and the Sacred College of Cardinals, the upper Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world comprised 8 Patriarchates of the Latin and 5 of the Oriental Rite, 166 Archbishoprics of the Latin and 22 of the Oriental Rite, and 694 Bishoprics of the Latin and 54 of the Oriental Rite. The list was as follows:

I. Patriarchates.

Latin Rite-1. Constantinople; 2. Alexandria; 3. Antioch; 4. Jeru-salem; 5. Venice; 6. Lisbon; 7. West Indies; 8. East Indies.

Oriental Rite:-1. Antioch, of the Maronites; 2. Antioch, of the Melchites; 3. Antioch, of the Syrians; 4. Babylon, of the Chaldæans; Cilicia, of the Armenians.

Besides the above sees, and 16 sees 'nullius dioceseos,' there are now 7 Apostolic Delegations, 115 Apostolic Vicariates, and 36 Apostolic Prefectures, most of them held by titular archbishops and bishops (unti lately called in partibus infidelium ').

The summary of actual dignitaries stands as follows for January 1889 (each dignitary being reckoned under his highest rank and title) :Sacred College of Cardinals

Patriarchs of both Rites

63

10

Archbishops and Bishops of the Latin Rite, Residential 771
Archbishops and Bishops of the Oriental Rite;
Archbishops and Bishops, Titular

56

307

having a title no longer

13

6

The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is carried on by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations composed of Cardinals, with Consultors and Officials. There are no twenty Sacred Congregations, viz. Inquisition or Holy Office, Consistorial, Apostolic Visitation, Bishops and Regulars, Council, Residence of Bishops, State of Regulars, Ecclesiastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda for Eastern Rite, Index, Sacred Rites, Ceremonial, Regular Discipline, Irdulgences and Sacred Relics, Examination of Bishops, Fabric of St Peter's, Lauretana, Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, Studies.

The apostolic delegations, vicariates, and prefectures throughout the world stand under the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide' at Rome. At present they are distributed as follows:

Instruction.

The State regulates public instruction, and maintains, either entirely or in conjunction with the communes and provinces, public schools of every grade. Every teacher in a public institution maintained by the State, or by any other public body, must have the qualifications required by law; and in all public institutions not belonging to the State, the same programme must be followed, and the same rules observed. No private person can keep a school without having obtained the authorisation of the State.

Elementary education is compulsory for children between six and nine years of age. (Of these, according to the census of 1881, there were 1,808,129.) The compulsory clause is by no means strictly enforced. The enactment, however, provided that education for children of school age should be compulsory only when the supply of teachers should reach the proportion to population, in the least populous communes, of one to every 1,000 inhabitants; in the most populous, one to every 1,500 inhabitants. The law (1889) has been applied to 8,178 communes out of 8,527.

Schools in Italy may be classified under four heads, according as they provide: (1) elementary instruction; (2) secondary instruction-classical; (3) secondary instruction-technical; (4) higher education.

(1) Schools providing elementary instruction are of two grades. Religious instruction is given to those whose parents request it. Only the lower-grade instruction is compulsory. Every commune must have at least one lower-grade school for boys and one for girls; and no school with only one master should have more than seventy pupils. Higher-grade elementary schools are required in communes having normal and secondary schools, and in those with over 4,000 inhabitants. In both grades the instruction is free.

(2) Secondary instruction-classical-is provided in the ginnasi and licei, the latter leading to the universities.

(3) Secondary instruction-technical. This is supplied by the technical schools, technical institutes, and institutes for the mercantile marine.

(4) Higher education is supplied by the universities, by other higher institutes, and by special higher schools.

Of these various educational institutions, the elementary schools are supported by the communes, subsidies or free loans being occasionally granted by the State. In the normal schools and licei, the State provides for the payment of the staff and for scientific material. The ginnasi and technical schools should, according to the general law, be supported by the communes; but, in many cases, the cost of these is borne, in great part, by the State. In the technical institutes, half the sum paid to the staff is provided by the State. The universities are maintained by the State and by their own ancient revenues, such expenses as those for scientific material, laboratories, &c., being, in some cases, borne by the various provinces of the university region. The higher special schools are maintained conjointly by the State, the province, the commune, and, sometimes, the local Chamber of Commerce.