the rank of captain), and by the Federal Council for troops of the Confederation and for combined corps. In time of peace the highest commands are held by colonels. When mobilisation is contemplated, one of the colonels is appointed commander-in-chief and is styled general, but on demobilisation he reverts to his former rank.

The principal training school for officers is that at Thun, near Bern.

Production and Industry.

The soil of the country is very equally divided among the population, it being estimated that there are nearly 300,000 peasant proprietors, representing a population of about 2,000,000.

Of the total area 28.4 per cent. is unproductive; of the productive area 35.8 per cent. is under grass and meadows, 29 per cent. under forest, 18-7 per cent. under fruit, 16-4 per cent. under crops and gardens. Rye, oats, and potatoes are the chief crops, but the bulk of food crops consumed in the country is imported. About 22 million gallons of wine are produced annually. The dairy products of Switzerland are of most commercial importance, especially cheese. At the last enumeration (1886) there were in the country 98,333 horses, 1,211,713 cattle of all kinds, 341,632 sheep, 415,619 goats, 394,451 swine. The export of cheese has quadrupled in the last 30 years; in 1887 it was over 52 million lbs. The estimated value of the cattle in 1876 was 10,208,9667.

The Swiss Confederation has the right of supervision over the police of the forests, and of framing regulations for their maintenance. The district over which the Federal supervision extends lies to the south and east of a tolerably straight line from the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva to the northern end of the Lake of Constance. It comprises about 428,000 hectares, or 1,070,000 acres of forest, and the Federal forest laws apply to all cantonal, communal, and municipal forests within this area, those belonging to private persons being exempt, except when from their position they are necessary for protection against climatic influences. In 1876 it was enacted that this forest area should never be reduced; servitudes over it, such as rights of way, of gathering firewood, &c., should be bought up; public forests should be surveyed, and new wood planted where required, subventions for the purpose being sanctioned. Between 1881 and 1889 there were bought up 1,558 servitudes at a cost of 496,279 francs; up to the end of 1888 the cadastration of 54,144 hectares of forest had been executed, and in the year 1888 nearly 6,000,000 trees were planted. Subventions are also granted to the free forest districts, comprising 3,837 square kilometres of forest. In most cantons forest administration is conducted by a department under a member of the Government, assisted by a chief forester, but in some by a committee chosen directly by the people.

Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with a strong tendency to manufacturing industry. In 1887 there were altogether in Switzerland 3,087 factories of various kinds, subject to the factory law, with 150,702 workpeople. There were 398 cotton factories, with 36,440 workpeople; 246 silk factories, with 26,500 people; 77 other textile mannfactories, with 4,172 workers; 1,240 embroidery and lace factories, with 23,299 people; 201 watch and jewellery factories, with 11,144 workers; 208 factories of machinery, with 11,866 workers; 125 tobacco factories, with 5,981 workers; and 68 ironworks, with 2,164 workers.

Commerce.

The special commerce, including precious metals, was as follows in 1885-88:

Imports
Exports

Francs

Francs Francs Francs 756,253,164 799,230,060 837,034,916 827,078,595 665,686,932 667,423,642 671,092,633 673,060,648

What is known as the effective imports (including those deposited in entrepôts) amounted to 841,767,469 francs in 1888, and effective exports (including those taken out of entrepôts) to 683,037,361 francs. The total value of the general imports in 1888 was 1,349,993,898 francs, and exports 1,191,263,790 francs. The following table shows value of special commerce in 1888 :

:

Under food-stuffs the most important imports are cereals; and the most important exports cheese and condensed milk.

The following table shows the value of the special exports and imports in the case of the leading countries with which Switzerland did business in

1888. Being an inland country, Switzerland has only direct commercial intercourse with the four surrounding States-Austria, Italy, France, and Germany; but the exports to other countries, especially Great Britain and the United States, are in fact very important. Much of the trade with the frontier countries is really of the nature of transit trade.

From official returns, it appears that the railways open for public traffic in Switzerland in January 1890 had a total length of 3,091 kilometres, including the St. Gothard system. These are distributed among more than fifteen companies, the Jura-Berne-Lucerne Railway being in the hands of the canton of Bern. The cost of construction of the lines up to the end of 1887 was 916,794,147 francs. The receipts in 1887 amounted to 78,859,089 francs, and expenses to 42,224,599 francs. Number of passengers 25,762,822; weight of goods carried 8,333,503 tons.

In 1888 there were in Switzerland 815 post-offices and 2,248 letterboxes; 1,812 higher functionaries and 4,627 employés (letter-carriers &c.). By the internal service there were forwarded 80,195,703 letters, 11,531,351 post-cards, 17,000,491 packets of printed matter, 68,076,584 newspapers, and 1,865,632 sample and other parcels. In the foreign postal service there were transmitted 24,414,179 letters, 5,718,173 post-cards, and 12,538,646 packets of printed matter. Internal post-office orders were sent to the amount of 294,137,045 francs, and international sent and received to the amount of 34,539,457 francs.

Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which, excepting wires for railway service, is wholly under the control of the State. In 1888 the length of State telegraph lines was 7,114 kilometres; the total length of wire being 17,340 kilometres. There were transmitted 1,805,473 inland telegrams, 1,105,827 international, and 468,759 in transit through Switzerland. The receipts amounted to 1,188,297 francs, and the expenses to 979,791 francs. Number of offices 1,326. In the telephone service there were 7,946 officials, with 3,437 kilometres of line, and 11,811 kilometres of wire.

Money and Credit.

On December 31, 1888, there were 34 banks issuing bank-notes, with a total paid-up capital of 122,584,000 francs, and note issue of 153,100,000 francs, the security in specie being 97,187,000 francs. Cantonal banknotes are generally guaranteed by the cantons, others by deposit of titles or by other securities.

The note issue consisted of

12,470 notes of 1,000 francs = 12,470,000

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The metric system of money, weights, and measures has been generally adopted in Switzerland, with some changes of names and of subdivisions. These and their British equivalents are:

MONEY.

The Franc, of 10 Batzen, and 100 Rappen or Centimes.
Average rate of exchange, 25-22 francs = £1 sterling.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

The Centner, of 50 Kilogrammes and 100 Pfund=110 lbs. avoidupois. The Quintal = 100 Kilogrammes = 220 lbs. avoidupois. The Arpent (Land) =8-9ths of an acre.

The Pfund, or pound, chief unit of weight, is legally divided into decimal Grammes, but the people generally prefer the use of the old halves and quarters, named Halbpfund, and Viertelpfund.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. OF SWITZERLAND IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Agent and Consul-General.-Henri Vernet, of Geneva.
Secretary.-Dr. Ch. d'Orelli Corragioni.

2. OF GREAT BRITAIN IN SWITZERLAND.

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.--Charles Stewart Scott, C.B.; appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Switzerland, May 1, 1888.

Secretary.-George W. Buchanan.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Switzerland.

1. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Eidgenössische Volkszählung vom 1. December, 1888. 4. Bern, 1889.
Feuille fédérale. Berne, 1889.

Geschäftsberichte des Schweizerischen Bundesraths an die Bundesversammlung. 8. Berne, 1889.

Message du Conseil fédéral à la Haute Assemblée fédérale concernant le récensement fédérale du 1er décembre 1880. 8. Berne, 1881.

Report by Mr. Thornton on Cattle in Switzerland, in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' Part I. 1883. London, 1883.

Report by Mr. Thornton on Trade and Industry in Switzerland in No. 57 Diplomatic and Consular Reports on Trade and Finance.' London, 1886.

Report by Mr. Thornton on Watchmaking in Switzerland, in Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Legation.' Part I. London, 1884.

Report on the North-East Railway of Switzerland, in No. 79 of Reports on Subjects of General and Commercial Interest.' London, 1888.

Résultats du compte d'état de la Confédération suisse pour l'année 1888. 4. Berne, 1889. Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau des Eidgenöss Departments des Innern. 4. Bern, 1889.

Statistique du commerce de la Suisse avec l'étranger en 1888. Berne, 1889. Voranschlag der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft für das Jahr 1890. Bern, 1883. The Armed Strength of Switzerland, by Colonel C. W. Bowdler Bell; issued by the Intelligence Division of the War Office. 8. London, 1889.

2. NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Adams (Sir F. O.), and Cunningham (C. D.), The Swiss Confederation. 1889.

Almanach fédéral suisse pour 1889. Berne, 1889.

Bericht der Basler Handelskammer. Basel, 1889.

Bericht über Handel und Industrie von Zürich. Zürich, 1889.

Harfin (J.), Statistische Tafel der Schweiz, 1881. Fol. Zürich, 1882.

der

Gisi (Dr. Wilh.), Zeitschrift für Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben von Schweizerischen Statistischen Gesellschaft, mit Mitwirkung des eidgenössischen Statistischen Bureaus. 4. Bern, 1889.

Grob (C.), Sammlung neuer Gesetze und Verordnungen, nebst statistischen Uebersichten über das gesammte Unterrichtswesen in der Schweiz im Jahr 1886. Zürich, 1887.

Grote (George), Letters on the Politics of Switzerland. 8. London, 1876.

Kolb (G. Fr.). Beiträge zur Statistik der Industrie und des Handels der Schweiz. 8. Zürich, 1869.

Maguin (H.), Notes et documents sur l'instruction populaire en Suisse. 8. Paris, 1878.
Officieller Katalog der Schweizerischen Landesausstellung. Zürich, 1883.
Rapport du chemin de fer du Gothard. Zürich, 1886.

Wirth (Max.), Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz. Im Verein mit gegen 60 Schweizerischen Gelehrten und Staatsmännern herausgegeben. Zürich, 1871-75.

3 vols. 8.

TONGA.

King George I. Tubu; Queen, Charlotte; heir-presumptive, Fusibala, sister of the King.

There is a Legislative Assembly, composed one half of the hereditary nobility, and half of members elected by the people. Prime Minister, Shirley W. Baker, formerly a missionary. There are treaties of friendship with Great Britain and Germany.

The archipelago is in the South Pacific, consisting of three groups (Vavau, Haapai, and Tonga) and a few isolated islands. Area, 374 square miles; population, 23,000, including 437 Europeans. Chief town, Nutraalopa, in the island of Tongatabu. Imports, 1888, 243,6831.-textiles, 69,3297.; meat and fish, 32,6937.; metal goods, 11,7707. Imports by English traders, 123,3627.; by German, 86,5671. Exports, 332,3677.-copra, 307,9301. Exports by English traders, 153,1721.; by German traders, 174,8297. Vessels entered, 1888, 88 of 33,410 tons; cleared, 85 of 33,202 tons.

British Deputy-Commissioner and Vice-Consul.--R. B. Leefe.