Linacre.

England. By the middle of the fifteenth century many former students of Oxford began to study at various humanistic centers in Italy. But the influence of such innovators was scarcely felt until Grocyn and Linacre, Grocyn and who had gone to Florence about 1488, undertook to introduce Greek into education upon their return home. Grocyn (1442-1519) became the first lecturer on Greek at Oxford, but he was greatly assisted in the humanistic training by Linacre (1460–1524), although his lectureship was nominally on medicine. Among their pupils were Erasmus, More, and Colet. Humanistic education did not Erasmus, reach Cambridge, however, until the close of the fifteenth More. century, but, with the progress of the sixteenth, that university rapidly overtook her sister institution. The real development began when Erasmus, while a professor of theology at Cambridge (1510-1514), consented also to lecture upon Greek as a labor of love. Erasmus was succeeded by a number of lecturers, and in 1540 the new regius professorship was held for four years each by the great teachers, Cheke (1514-1557) and Ascham (1515- Cheke and 1568).

Colet, and

Ascham.

Humanism at the Court.-As Cheke became private tutor to Prince Edward and Ascham to Princess Elizabeth, an Hellenic atmosphere was soon promoted in royal circles. A powerful assistance to the development of humanism was also found at the court through the influence of More, who was especially close to Cardinal More and Wolsey, and so for a time to the king, Henry VIII. A number of treatises upon humanistic education were written by members of the court, like More and Vives; while Ascham produced his Scholemaster, a well-known Scholemaster. work on teaching Latin and Greek by 'double transla

Wolsey.

Ascham's

Religious training combined

with the classics.

tion.' This famous method consisted in having the child translate a passage into English, and then, after an hour, render it back into the original and have the master compare it with the text.

Colet and His School at St. Paul's.-The humanistic changes in English education, however, were not limited to the universities and the court. The schools also felt the effect of the new movement, and the most important factor in bringing this about was the foundation of St. Paul's School in 1509 by Colet. This scholar devoted most of the fortune left him by his father to establishing a humanistic school in St. Paul's churchyard, dedicated to 'the child Jesus.' The institution was thus an outgrowth of Northern humanism, and combined religious training with a study of the classics. In connection with certain Latin authors and Church Fathers, the pupils studied the catechism in English, the Latin Grammar of Lily, who was the first headmaster of the school, and the De Copia of Erasmus. St. Paul's school trained a long list of brilliant scholars, literary men, clergy, and statesmen, and became the immediate model for a host of other institutions. There were in existence at the time St. Influence upon Paul's was founded some three hundred' grammar' schools of various types. These had come down from the Middle Ages, and their chief purpose had been the training of young men for the priesthood. Their curriculum was usually of the mediæval monastic type, but they soon felt the influence of the new school. Those which survived the general dissolution of ecclesiastical foundations by Henry VIII and Edward VI were gradually remodeled on the classical basis of St. Paul's. New schools were also established in accordance with the humanistic ideals.

other grammar

schools.

Soon became

formal.

Humanism in the English 'Grammar' Schools.--But the humanism of the 'grammar' schools in England, as in Italy and Germany, soon became narrow and formal. The purpose of humanistic education came to be not so much a real training in literature as a practical command of Latin as a means of communication in all lands and ages. Accordingly, the training became one of diction- narrow and aries, grammars, and phrase-books. Expressions and selections were culled from authors and treasured in notebooks, and the methods became largely memoriter and passive. The formalism into which the schools of England had thus fallen by the seventeenth century is depicted in Brinsley's Ludus literarius: or the Grammar Schoole, a work intended to ridicule and reform these conditions. It indicates that the training in Latin was devoted to drill in inflecting, parsing, and construing a fixed set of texts. Lily's Grammar was memorized by the pupils, and references to it were glibly repeated, with little understanding of their meaning. All conversation was based upon some phrase-book, like the Colloquies of Corderius, and a Latin theme had to be ground out each week.

English 'Grammar' and 'Public' Schools To-day.Although reforms have since been made in many of these directions, the organization and the formal humanism of the English 'grammar' school have been preserved in principle even to this day. Mathematics, Largely unmodern languages, and sciences have been added, and a 'modern side' has been established as an alternate for the old course, but the classics are still the emphasized feature, and, to a large degree, the drill methods prevail. But, while it was originally intended that the grammar

changed.

The great 'public' schools.

First American secondary schools modeled after English.

schools should, by means of the endowment, be open to rich and poor alike, because of the great increase in expenses, necessary and unnecessary, there are now not many opportunities for any one in the lower classes of society to attend a grammar school. Similarly, a distinction has come to be drawn between 'grammar' and 'public' schools, although it is not a very clear one. In general, a 'public school' has a more aristocratic and wealthier patronage. Nine 'great public schools' were recognized by the Clarendon Commission in 1864,Winchester (Fig. 17), Eton, St. Paul's, Shrewsbury, Westminster, Rugby, Harrow, Merchant Taylors', and Charterhouse; but several other old schools and a number of the stronger foundations of Victoria's reign are generally admitted, and many others claim the dignity of the name that would not be considered eligible outside of the immediate locality.

The 'Grammar' Schools in the American Colonies.It was after these 'grammar' schools of the mother country that the first secondary schools in America were modeled and named. In many instances the fathers of the colonies, such as Edward Hopkins, William Penn, and Roger Williams, had been educated in the grammar schools of England, and naturally sought to model the institutions in their new home after them as nearly as the different conditions would permit. The Boston Latin (Grammar) School was founded as early as 1635 (Fig. 23), and other towns of Massachusetts,-Charlestown, Ipswich, Salem, Dorchester, Newbury, Cambridge, and Roxbury, also before long established grammar schools. Similarly, towns of Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the other colo