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ormation inclined toward universal elementary education and control of the schools by the state. The secondary schools in Protestant countries also came largely under civic authorities, although the clergy still taught and inspected them; while Catholic secondary education was furnished mostly by the Jesuit colleges. In many instances the universities turned Protestant; and new universities, Protestant and Catholic, were founded.

volts from the

The Relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance.The series of revolts from the Catholic Church, generally known collectively as the 'Reformation,' may be regarded as closely connected with the Renaissance. As shown in the last chapter, humanism in the North led to a renewed study of the Scriptures and a reform of ecclesiastical doctrines and abuses, and took on a moral and religious color. Reformers arose, like Wimpfeling and Erasmus, who, while remaining within the Church, sought to purify it of corruption and obscurantism. But the Church at first stubbornly resisted all efforts at in- A series of reternal reform. Its immense wealth, large numbers, and Church accompanied training enabled it for a long time to thwart the Northern huspirit of the age, and a condition of ecclesiastical upheaval followed. Revolts against papal authority ensued in various parts of Europe north of Italy, and were furnished support by the awakened intellectual and social conditions of the sixteenth century. The result was the establishment of a church, or rather a set of churches, outside of Catholic Christianity. While each revolt had some peculiarities of its own, there were underlying them all certain general causes that indicated their relation to the Renaissance.

The Revolt and Educational Works of Luther.-Even the attitude of Martin Luther (1483-1546) seems to have

manism.

In his revolt,
Luther relied

upon the in-
dividualistic
spirit of the
times.

of the Bible

been bound up with the tendencies of the day. Apparently he had at first no idea of breaking from the Church, and supposed that the ninety-five theses he nailed to the church door at Wittenberg (1517) were quite consistent with Catholic allegiance. But even before this he had attacked Aristotle and scholasticism with great vigor, appealing to primitive Christianity and the right of free thought, and thus identified himself in spirit with the Northern Renaissance. And two years later, in his contest with Eck, when he was actually led to deny the authority of both pope and council, he was evidently relying upon the humanistic and individualistic atmosphere of the times.

When once he had revolted, Luther gave much of his time to promoting the reform and education of the masses by writing. All his works, whether religious or pedagogical, were clearly intended, in a broad sense, to be educational. After his condemnation at the Diet of His translation Worms (1521), when he had taken refuge at the Wartburg, he undertook to awaken the minds and hearts of the common people by a translation of the Greek Testament. Contrary to general opinion, a large number of translations had preceded that of Luther, and their popularity must have proved suggestive to him, but his edition was unusually close to the colloquial language of the times. A dozen years later, he had completed a translation of the entire Bible, which contributed greatly to education by getting the masses to read and reflect. For the further instruction of the people, he also followed the fashion of the day in producing two catechisms, one for adults and the other for children, together with many tracts, addresses, and letters, filled with allusions

and his catechisms.

Sermon.

to the organization and methods of education. But the documents which most fully reveal his educational positions are his Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of All His Letter and Cities of Germany in behalf of Christian Schools (1524), and his Sermon on the Duty of Sending Children to School (1530).

Luther's Ideas on Education.-The purpose of education, Luther everywhere holds, involves the promotion of the State's welfare quite as much as that of the Church. The schools were to make good citizens as well as reli- Civic aim. gious men. Educational institutions should, on that

academic

account, be maintained at public expense for every one,-rich and poor, high and low, boys and girls, alike, and attendance should be compelled by the civic authorities. Realizing that some pupils may find it hard Industrial and to give the time to school, Luther planned that "they training. should spend an hour or two a day in school, and the rest of the time in work at home, learn some trade and do whatever is desired, so that study and work may go on together." But he also desired a more academic course "for the brightest pupils, who give promise of becoming accomplished teachers, preachers, and workers." In any case, Luther naturally believed that the chief studies should be the Bible and the catechism. But, as a Northern humanist, he recommended the ancient languages-Latin, Greek, and Hebrew-for the light they would throw on the Scriptures and the patristic writers. He likewise approved of rhetoric and Enlarged dialectic, which were very valuable subjects in those days of controversy; and he made a decided advance in advocating history, natural science, vocal and instrumental music, and gymnastic exercises. History is ad

content.

Rational methods.

vised, not only, as was common with the humanists, for the sake of illustrating moral truth, but also for the purpose of understanding social institutions. The study of nature was intended to reveal "the wonders of Divine Goodness and the omnipotence of God." Gymnastics he considered of value both for the body and the soul, and music a means of "driving away all care and melancholy from the heart." The methods he recommended were equally rational. He would utilize the natural activity of children and not attempt to repress them, and would make use of concrete examples, wherever possible. Languages he would teach less by grammar than by practice. This belief in the importance of selecting the proper content and method in education led him to rate the function of the teacher as higher, if anything, than that of the preacher.

The Embodiment of Luther's Ideas in Schools by His Associates. These recommendations of Luther were largely embodied in actual institutions by his associates. The year after his Letter to the Mayors was published, the Protestants were requested by the Count of Mansfeld to establish in Luther's native town, Eisleben, a school that should put his educational theories into pracMelanchthon tice, and this was performed by Melanchthon. The sub

and Sturm.

sequent organization of Latin schools throughout the Electorate of Saxony, and the foundation of the gymnasium of Sturm at Strassburg upon the Protestant basis have already been touched upon (pp. 114 ff.). But of fully as much importance were the educational foundaBugenhagen in tions of Bugenhagen (1485-1558). While engaged in

Northern
Germany,

reorganizing the churches in the cities and states of Northern Germany, by his general 'church orders' to

each, he made ample provision for schools of the Lutheran
type. For instance, at Hamburg in 1520 he organized a
single Latin school with a rector and seven teachers,
together with a German school for boys and one for girls
in every parish. Eight years afterward, the 'church
orders' of Brunswick provided two classical schools, two
vernacular schools for boys, and four for girls, so located
in the city that all children could conveniently reach a
school. Within a half dozen years he made similar re-
quirements for Lübeck, Minden, Göttingen, Soest,
Bremen, Osnabrück, and other cities, and throughout
some entire states of Germany, such as Holstein and his
own native duchy of Pomerania. The educational Other
theories of Luther were also put into practice in a num-
ber of schools taught by Trotzendorf, Neander, and other
pupils of Melanchthon.

associates.

Northern hu

The Revolt and Educational Ideas of Zwingli.-The revolt under Zwingli (1484-1531) was more directly the outcome of Northern humanism than was that of Luther. Sprang from Through Erasmus and others he had come to believe manism. that there was little basis in the Bible for the traditional theology, and he carefully read the accounts himself in the original Greek and Hebrew. After he took charge of the cathedral at Zurich, he began his attack upon the dogmas and traditions of the Church, and, by securing the support of the town, managed in a fairly peaceful way to drop one form of the Church after another, until, within five years, he had abolished even the mass. Zwingli likewise made the extension of educational facilities a part of his reform. He founded a number of humanistic institutions, and introduced elementary schools into Switzerland. He also published a Brief Trea

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