Schools and tise on the Christian Education of Youth (1523), which recommended a course of studies not unlike that of course similar Luther, except that, from his practical temperament, he did not mention history, but did add arithmetic and surveying. to Luther's. Also began ern humanism. Calvin's Revolt and His Encouragement of Education. While endeavoring to spread his reforms, Zwingli was slain in the prime of life. His positions were maintained by his successor in the cathedral, but the work was soon overshadowed and merged in the movement of Calvin (1509-1564). Calvin's break with the Church, like that of French Protestants generally, also began through North- through the influence of Northern humanism and the study of the Greek Testament. He had, however, received an excellent legal and theological education, and did not content himself with merely attacking Catholic doctrine, but was the first Protestant to formulate an elaborate system of theology. The call of Calvin to reorganize the civil and religious administration of the city of Geneva gave him an excellent opportunity for working out his theories. Although he was much engrossed in religious disputes, he established 'colleges' at Geneva and elsewhere, and in other ways undertook to found schools and promote education. He succeeded, too, in persuading his former teacher, Corderius (see p. III), to come to Switzerland, and organize, adminis-/ ter, and teach in the reformed colleges. Calvin's colleges and Corderius. The Colleges of Calvin.-Corderius here wrote four books of Colloquies, with the purpose of training boys by means of conversation on timely topics to speak Latin with facility, and from this work we can learn much of the character of the Calvinistic colleges. Clearly Switzerland, the ideal was the 'learned piety' of Melanchthon, Sturm, Aim, content, and organizaand the other Northern humanists and Protestants. An tion. attempt seems to have been made to teach Latin in such a way as to cultivate a moral and religious life, and psalms were sung, public prayers offered, and selections from the Bible repeated each day. We also know that in the seven classes of a college at Geneva the pupils learned reading and grammar from the Latin catechism, and then studied Vergil, Cicero, Ovid, Cæsar, Livy, and Latin composition. Greek seems to have been begun in the fourth year, and, beside classical Greek authors, the Gospels and Epistles were read. Likewise, as in the other Reformation schools, logic and rhetoric were studied in the higher classes. The colleges of this type not only spread rapidly among Calvin's co-religionists in Spread in Switzerland and France, but, as Geneva became a city France, of refuge for all the oppressed, a regard for humanistic, England, and religious, and universal education was absorbed by the persecuted Netherlanders, the English Protestants of Mary's time, and the Scotch under the leadership of Knox in the days of Mary, Queen of Scots (1505-1572). Henry VIII's Revolt and Its Effect upon Education.In England a revolt from the Church likewise occurred. This also may have been due in part to the investigative Due to perspirit of Northern humanism, but the immediate cause of the breach was the desire of Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) to control the national Church, that he might divorce his wife, and there was at first little change in doctrine. Once in ecclesiastical power, Henry began in 1536 to confiscate the monastic lands and property, and enlarged the scope of his operations until he had suppressed a large number of monastic, cathedral, collegiate, hos Netherlands, Scotland. sonal reasons. grammar schools. pital, and other schools. During the reign (1547-1553) Suppression of of his successor, Edward VI, the acts of suppression were extended to chantry and gild foundations, and it is estimated that, of the three hundred grammar schools that had come down in England from the Middle Ages, but few were not destroyed under Henry and Edward. Some, however, remained by the terms of the parliamentary acts of suppression, and popular sentiment caused others to be refounded. And during the reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603) and of the first two Stuart kings (16031649) these foundations were greatly increased out of royal funds or through the philanthropy of wealthy men. All of these schools, as we have seen (p. 118), following the example of St. Paul's, adopted the Northern ideals of humanism and furnished a curriculum of classics and religious training. The latter became based, of course, upon the teachings of the Church of England. Foundation of the Society of Jesus.-We may now turn back to the Mother Church and see what efforts she was putting forth in behalf of education during the period of Protestant revolts. Both before and after the time of Luther there were reformers inside the Church who wished to improve its practices without changing its administration, but the Catholics in general felt it their chief duty to crush the Protestant heresy and recover the ground they had lost. This resulted in a number of religious wars, in which both sides displayed great bitterness and cruelty. But a more effective and constructive instrument in advancing the interests of Catholicism was the organization of the 'Society of strengthen the Jesus.' This order was founded by Ignatius de Loyola (1491-1556) in 1534. He persuaded six fellow-students Aimed to authority of the pope. at Paris to join with him in devoting themselves to the conversion of the heathen, and to strengthening the authority of the pope. Six years later, after considerable opposition, the new order was recognized by the pope and began to add rapidly to its numbers. The Jesuits have always striven first through missionary labors to extend Catholic Christianity throughout the world, and then by means of schools to hold their converts and educate all peoples to papal allegiance. diorum. Organization of the Jesuits.-The organization of the Society of Jesus was outlined in its Constitution. This fundamental document of the order received its final revision shortly after Loyola's death, but the Ratio Studiorum, which was an expansion of Part IV of the The Constitu tion and the Constitution and described the educational administra- Ratio Stu tion in detail, was not finally formulated until 1599. It thus summed up the experience of the Jesuit schools during more than sixty years. The administration of the society has always been of a military type. Loyola had originally started upon the career of a soldier, and did not believe that any system could be effective unless it were based upon implicit obedience to one's official superiors. At the head of the order is the 'general,' The 'general,' who is elected for life and has vast administrative powers. As the society spread, the countries that came under its control were divided into provinces, and at the head of the Jesuit interests in each of these districts is the 'pro- 'provincial,' vincial,' who is appointed by the general for three years. In each province there are various colleges, whose presiding officer, or 'rector,' is chosen for three years by 'rector,' and the general, but is directly responsible to the provincial and reports to him. Similarly, within each college are other officials. The lower colleges are humanistic, 'prefects,' immediately subordinate to the rector, but selected by the provincial; and under the inspection of the prefects are the 'professors' or 'preceptors.' The Jesuit Colleges.-The Jesuits have never engaged in elementary education, but have required that pupils know how to read and write before being admitted to any of their schools. This may have been brought about in the first place by the fact that the number of their teachers was limited, or that the public elementary school was just coming to be regarded as of importance, and secondary education of the humanistic type was everywhere dominant. The Jesuit educational organization has, secondary and therefore, consisted of 'lower colleges' with a gymnasial course, and of 'upper colleges,' which are of university grade. Boys are admitted to the lower colleges at from ten to fourteen years of age, and spend five or six years there. The first three classes were at first devoted to a careful study of Latin grammar, and a little of Greek; in the fourth year a number of the Greek and Latin poets and historians were read; while the last class, to which two years were usually given, took up a rhetorical study of the classical authors. Only slight variations in the curriculum have ever been allowed since the Ratio Studiorum was issued, until the revision in 1832. In that year work in mathematics, natural science, history, and geography was added in the lower colleges, but the classics still compose the body of the course. with curriculum largely unchanged. The fuil course of the upper colleges lasts seven or nine years, the first three in 'philosophy,' followed by The upper col- four or six in theology. The training in 'philosophy' now includes not only logic, metaphysics, psychology, ethics, and natural theology, but also work in algebra, leges furnish and theology. |