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Distinctive social realists.

tions in the

more exclusively stressed. The titles of most of these reveal their content, as can easily be seen in the case of such productions as Castiglione's The Courtier (1528), Elyot's The Governour (1531), Peacham's The Compleat Gentleman (1622), and Brathwaite's The English Gentleman (1630). But, in most of the early realistic works, humanistic and social elements are inextricably interwoven; and humanistic and social realism, taken together, seem to constitute a natural bridge from humanism over to sense realism.

The Influence of the Innovators upon Education.There is, however, a variety of other brilliant educaOther sugges- tional suggestions in each of these early realists. All early realists. of them hold to a broader and better rounded training and more natural and informal methods than those in vogue. Mulcaster even advocates universal elementary education, the professional training of teachers, and the education of girls, and undertakes to make a naïve analysis of the mind as the basis of a philosophy of education. So suggestive have the recommendations of the early realists proved to modern education that these authors are often known as the 'innovators.' Yet their theories do not seem to have affected greatly the educational practice of the times. They did tend to disrupt traditionalism and the formal humanism, to bring But their in- education into touch with society and preparation for real life, and to popularize a wider content and a more informal procedure, but their influence appeared through their successors and later education rather than directly in the schools of the period. Locke, for instance, in addition to the influence he had upon Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and other reformers, must in some measure have

fluence was indirect.

been responsible for the great development of the physical and ethical sides of education in the public and grammar schools of England, together with the tendency of these institutions to consider such aspects of rather more importance than the purely intellectual. His plea for a tutor as the means of shaping manners and morals has also probably had its effect upon the education of the English aristocracy.

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the sciences.

The Ritterakademien.-In the German states, on the other hand, there arose at the courts during the seventeenth century an actually new type of educational institution as the outgrowth of social realism. Here, in place of the old humanistic education, there was developed a special training for the young nobles in French, Training for Italian, Spanish, and English, in such accomplishments modern lanas courtly conduct, dancing, fencing, and riding, and ric arts, and in philosophy, mathematics, physics, geography, statistics, law, genealogy, and heraldry. The educational institutions in which this training was embodied were known as Ritterakademien or 'academies for the nobles.' Such academies were founded at Colberg, Luneberg, Vienna, Wolffenbüttel, and many other centers before the close of the century. They originally covered the work of the gymnasia, although substituting the modern languages, sciences, and the knightly arts that have been mentioned for the Greek and Hebrew, and adding a little from the course of the university. Gradually,| however, they became part of the regular secondary Absorbed into system.

The Academies in England.-Milton's suggestions were ultimately materialized in an even more influential type of school. In the Tractate he had recommended

secondary system.

that his ideal education be carried out in an institution to be known as an 'academy. Such a school was to be erected ‘in every city throughout this land.' It should train boys from the age of twelve to twenty-one, and should provide both secondary and higher education. 'Academies,' based very closely upon this plan, were about a generation later actually organized in a number of places by the Puritans. Under the harsh Act of Puritans after Uniformity (1662) two thousand non-conforming clergy

Milton's suggestions adopted by

the Act of Uniformity.

The first academies.

Their content.

men were driven from their parishes, and in many instances found school-teaching a congenial means of earning a livelihood, and at the same time of furnishing higher education to the young dissenters, who were excluded from the universities and grammar schools. The first of these academies was that established by Richard Frankland at Rathmill in 1665, and this was followed by the institutions of John Woodhouse at Sheriffhales, of Charles Morton at Newington Green, and of some thirty other educators of whom we have record at other places. These academies were largely humanistic in their realism, and, since their chief function was to fit for the ministry, they included Latin, Greek, and Hebrew in their course, but they were also rich in mathematics, natural and social sciences, modern languages, and the vernacular. The new tendency was also broadened and amplified by Locke's Thoughts (1693), which became the great guide for the managers of the Puritan academies. In 1689, when the Act of Toleration put non-conformity upon a legal footing, the academies were allowed to be regularly incorporated.

The Academies in America.-Academies arose also in America. When the number of religious denomina

supplement to

"grammar

tions had greatly increased and the demands upon secondary education had expanded, the 'grammar schools' (see pp. 120 f.), with their narrow denominational ideals and their limitation to a classical training and college preparation, proved inadequate, and efforts were made to organize academies as a supplement. Their rise as a There may have been earlier academies in America, the narrow but the first well-known suggestion of an academy was schools'. made in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin. He wished to inaugurate an education that would prepare for life, and not merely for college. Accordingly, he proposed for the youth of Pennsylvania a course in which English grammar and composition, penmanship, arithmetic, drawing, geography, history, the natural sciences, oratory, civics, and logic were to be emphasized. He would gladly have excluded Latin and other languages altogether, but for politic reasons these courses were allowed to be elective. Through the efforts of a number of leading citizens, such an academy was opened at Philadelphia The early (Fig. 32), in January, 1750 (although not chartered until July, 1753). During the next generation a number of similar institutions sprang up, especially in the middle and southern colonies. A great impulse was given the movement by the foundation of the two Phillips academies,one in 1780 at Andover, Massachusetts, and the other the next year at Exeter, New Hampshire. The Dummer Grammar School was reorganized as an academy in 1782, and the movement spread rapidly throughout New England during the last two decades of the eighteenth century.

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academies.

Shortly after the Revolution, owing in part to the inability or unwillingness of the towns to maintain Revolution the

After the

of secondary education.

Support, location, and functions.

prevailing type grammar schools, and in part to the wider appeal and greater usefulness of the academies, the latter institutions quite eclipsed the former, and became for about half a century the prevailing type of secondary school in the United States. They were usually endowed institutions managed by a close corporation, but were often largely supported by subscriptions from the neighborhood, and sometimes subsidized by the state. Located in small towns or villages, they served a wide constituency and made provision for boarding, as well as day pupils. Unlike the grammar schools, they were not originally intended to prepare for the learned professions exclusively, but, as time passed, they tended more and more to become preparatory schools for the colleges, instead of finishing schools for the middle classes of society. The academies were also the first institutions of secondary education to offer opportunities to women. Many of them were co-educational, and others, frequently burdened with the name of 'female seminary,' were for girls exclusively. Academies for some time likewise furnished the only means of training teachers for the elementary schools, and have generally played an important part in education in the United States.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Graves, During the Transition (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XVII; and Great Educators of Three Centuries (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. I and V; Monroe, Text-book (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 442-460. An excellent edition of Milton's Tractate of Education is that by Morris, E. E. (Macmillan, 1895); of Montaigne's Education of Children that by Rector, L. E. (Appleton, 1899); of Locke's Thoughts concerning Education, and of Mulcaster's Positions,

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