Sympathetic understanding of the child.

Intellectual

progenitor of modern reformers, but

schools not immediate.

education. He could not, however, have based his study of children and his advanced methods upon any real psychological foundation, for in his day the 'faculty' psychology (see p. 182) absolutely prevailed. Instead of working out his methods from scientific principles, he obtained them, as did Pestalozzi afterwards, through his sympathetic understanding of the child and his ability to place himself in the child's situation and see the world through the eyes of the child.

The Spread of Rousseau's Doctrines.-Thus seeds of many modern developments in educational organization, method, and content, were sown by Rousseau, and he is seen to be the intellectual progenitor of Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel, Spencer, and many other modern influence upon reformers. But his principles did not take immediate hold on the schools themselves, although their influence is manifest there as the nineteenth century advanced. In France they were apparent in the complaints and recommendations concerning schools in the lists of desired reforms (cahiers) that were issued by the various towns, and afterward clearly formed a basis for much of the legislation concerning the universal, free, and secular organization of educational institutions. In England, since there was no national system of schools, little direct impression was made upon educational practice. But in America this revolutionary thought would seem to have had much to do with causing the unrest that gradually resulted in upsetting the aristocratic and formal training of the young and in secularizing and universalizing the public school system. The first definite attempt, however, to put into actual practice the naturalistic education of Rousseau occurred in Germany through

the writings of Basedow and the foundation of the First attempt through Base'Philanthropinum,' and is of sufficient importance to dow. demand separate discussion.

doctrines.

Development of Basedow's Educational Reforms.Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) was by nature the very person to be captivated by Rousseau's doc- Naturally captivated by trines. He was talented, but erratic, unorthodox, tact- Rousseau's less, and irregular in life. He had been prepared at the University of Leipzig for the Lutheran ministry, but proved too heretical, and, giving up this vocation, became a tutor in Holstein to a Herr von Quaalen's children. With these aristocratic pupils he first developed methods of teaching through conversation and play connected with surrounding objects. A few years after this, in 1763, Basedow fell under the spell of Rousseau's Emile, which was most congenial to his methods of thinking and teaching, and turned all his energy toward educational reform. As in the case of Rousseau with education in France, he realized that German education of the day was sadly in need of just such an antidote as 'nat- Education of the day needed uralism' was calculated to furnish. The schoolrooms naturalism. were dismal and the work was unpleasant, physical training was neglected, and the discipline was severe. Children were regarded as adults in miniature (Fig. 25), and were so treated both in their dress and their education. The current schooling consisted largely of instruction in artificial deportment. The study of classics composed the entire intellectual curriculum, and the methods were purely grammatical. As a result, suggestions made by Basedow for educational improvement attained as great popularity as his advanced theological propositions had received abuse.

Address and

his text-books.

In 1768 by his Address on Schools and Studies, and their Influence on the Public Weal, he called generally upon princes, governments, ecclesiastics, and others in power, to assist him financially in certain definite educational reforms. In addition to suggesting that the schools be made nonsectarian and that public instruction be placed under a National Council of Education, he proposed that, in contrast to the formal and unattractive training of the day, education should be rendered practical in content Success of his and playful in method. To assist this reform, he planned production of to bring out a work on elementary education, which he described in outline. Great interest in his proposals was shown throughout Europe by sovereigns, nobles, prominent men, and others desiring a nonsectarian and more effective education, and a subsidy of some ten thousand dollars was speedily raised, to enable him to perfect his plans. Six years later, Basedow completed his promised text-book, Elementarwerk, and the companion work for teachers and parents known as Methodenbuch. Elementarwerk was accompanied by a volume containing ninety-six plates, which illustrated the subject-matter of the text, but were too large to be bound in with it. While in these manuals Basedow included many naturalistic ideas from Rousseau, he also embodied features from other reformers and even additions of his

Elementarwerk

own.

The

Text-books and Other Works.-The Elementarwerk clearly combines many of the principles of Comenius as well as of Rousseau. It has, in fact, been often called 'the Orbis Pictus (see p. 170) of the eighteenth century,' and Methoden- and gives a knowledge of things and words in the form of a dialogue. The Methodenbuch, while not following

buch.

Rousseau completely, contains many ideas concerning natural training that are suggestive of him. In this study of the nature of children, the book makes some advance upon the Rousselian doctrine by finding that they are especially interested in motion and noise, although Basedow would have shocked Rousseau by being so much under the control of tradition as to suggest using these interests in the teaching of Latin. Later, Basedow, together with Campe, Salzmann, and others of his followers, also produced a series of popular story books especially adapted to the character, interests, and needs of children. These works are all largely filled with Popular story didactics, moralizing, religiosity, and scraps of scientific children. information. The best known of them is Robinson der Jüngere (Robinson Crusoe Junior), which was published by Campe in 1779. It seems to have been suggested by Rousseau's recommendation of Robinson Crusoe as a text-book, and in turn a generation later it became the model for Der Schweizerische Robinson (The Swiss Family Robinson) of Wyss, which has been so popular with children in America and elsewhere.

books for

Course and Methods of the Philanthropinum.-Eight years before this, however, Prince Leopold of Dessau had been induced to allow Basedow to found there a model school called the 'Philanthropinum,' which should embody that reformer's ideas. Leopold granted him a generous salary, and three years later gave him an equip- Salary, equipment of buildings, grounds, and endowment. At first Basedow had but three assistants, but later the number was considerably increased. The staff then included teachers, several very able men, such as Campe, formerly chaplain at Potsdam, and Salzmann, who had been a professor

ment,

and pupils.

Universal education, but

tions.

Industrial training

at Erfurt. The underlying principle of the Philanthropinum was 'everything according to nature.' The natural instincts and interests of the children were only to be directed and not altogether suppressed. They were to be trained as children and not as adults, and the methods of learning were to be adapted to their stage of mentality. That all of the customary fashion and unnaturalness might be eliminated, the boys were plainly dressed and their hair cut short.

While universal education was believed in, and rich social distinc- and poor alike were to be trained, the traditional idea still obtained that the natural education of the one class was for social activity and leadership, and of the other for teaching. Consequently, the wealthy boys were to spend six hours in school and two in manual labor, while those from families of small means labored six hours and studied two. Every one, however, was taught handicrafts, carpentry, turning, planing, and threshing, as suggested in the third book of the Emile, and there were also physical exercises and games for all. On the intellectual side, while Latin was not neglected, considerable attention was paid to the vernacular and French. In keeping with the Elementarwerk, Basedow planned a and wide ob- wide objective and practical course very similar to that suggested by Comenius. It was to give some account of man, including bits of anthropology, anatomy, and physiology; of brute creation, especially the uses of domestic animals and their relation to industry; of trees and plants with their growth, culture, and products; of minerals and chemicals; of mathematical and physical instruments; and of trades, history, and commerce. He afterward admitted that he had overestimated the

jective course.