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monarchy, but practically a democracy is best.

a practical point of view. On the whole, Plato has been a factor in educational theory and practice that cannot be overlooked.

Aristotle's Ideal State and Education.-A more practical attempt to unify the new with the old in Athenian society and education was made by Aristotle (386322 B. C.), the pupil of Plato. From his father, the court physician at Macedon, and from his study under Plato, Aristotle obtained an excellent scientific training, which is evident in the way he approaches his problems. It is in his Politics especially that he discusses the ideal state and the training of a citizen. His method of investigation to determine the nature of this ideal state is inductive, and before formulating his conception of it, he makes a critical analysis of Plato's Republic and Laws, and analyzes the organization of many other states, both ideal and actual. He concludes that a monarchy is

Theoretically a theoretically the best type of government, but that the form most likely to be exercised for the good of the governed is the democracy. He then considers in detail the best natural and social conditions for a state. Among these practical considerations is the proper education to make its citizens virtuous.

Education nec

essary for

virtue.

Since virtue is of two kinds, moral or practical, and intellectual or speculative, and the former is merely the stepping-stone to the latter, the education needed for the virtue of the state must not, like that of Sparta, be purely a training for war and practical affairs. In marking off the periods of education, Aristotle holds that "the Training of the care of the body ought to precede that of the soul, and the training of the impulsive side of the soul ought to come next; nevertheless, the care of it must be for the

body,

sake of the reason, and the care of the body for the sake of the soul." The development of the body he wishes to start even before birth by having the legislator "consider sensible advice. at what age his citizens should marry and who are fit to marry." Also he deems it necessary to sanction the usage of his time of 'exposing' (see p. 13) all deformed and weakly children. However, his advice concerning the food, clothing, and exercise of children is humane and in keeping with the best modern hygiene.

irrational

The training of the body is a preparation for the formal schooling, which is to last from seven to twenty-one. This is divided into two periods by puberty, the first to be devoted to the training of the impulsive or irrational side of the soul, and the second to that of the ra- Training of the tional side. Education, he claims, should be public, as soul,— in Sparta, for it is the business of the state to see that its citizens are all rendered virtuous. However, the industrial classes, not being citizens, have no need of education, and women are to be limited in the scope of their training. The course of study for the irrational period is largely the same as that in use at Athens,-gymnastics, music, and literary subjects, although he recommends gymnastics, some reforms. Gymnastics is intended for self-control and literary subjects. beauty of form, and the making of neither athletes nor warriors should be the object, since the training of the former exhausts the constitution, and that of the latter is brutalizing. The literary subjects, which with Aristotle includes drawing, as well as reading and writing, are not to be taught merely for utilitarian reasons. Music is to be used not so much for relaxation or intellectual enjoyment as for higher development. Since melodies that afford pleasure are connected with noble ideas, and those

music, and

rational soul,-

which give us pain are joined to debased ideas, the study of music "cultivates the habit of forming right judgments, and of taking delight in good dispositions and noble actions." Another moral effect of music is that it produces katharsis or 'purification'; that is, by arousing in us pity and fear for humanity at large, it lifts us out of ourselves and affords a safe vent for our emotions.

Such was to be the training for the body and for the irrational period, but how Aristotle would have advised Training of the that the education of the rational soul be carried on can mathematical only be surmised, since the treatise breaks off suddenly subjects, dialectic, and at this point. It is probable that it would have included a higher training in mathematical subjects and dialectic similar to that advocated by Plato, and, from Aristotle's own predilections, he would have been likely also to add some of the physical and biological sciences.

sciences.

The Permanent Value of His Work. Thus Aristotle, like Plato, endeavored to work out the harmonizing of individual with social interests by the creation of an ideal state, and he similarly failed to answer the demand of the times. His work was much less visionary than The Republic, but he did not fully recognize that the day of the small isolated states of Greece, with their narrow prescriptions for patriotism and social order, Somewhat in had passed forever. Hence he hoped to achieve some reform by departing but little from existing conditions and reading a philosophy into them, and this bondage to the times prevented his educational system from making any advance beyond that of Plato. But while Aristotle had little effect upon the society of the times, his works have since been considered of great value, and the methods that he formulated have been most important.

bondage to his times.

to sciences,

of laws of

invention of

He not only started, or made the first great contributions to a number of sciences, but he crystallized the Contribution laws of thought itself. Also, as instruments to assist in formulation fashioning the various sciences, Aristotle invented a com- thought, and plete system of terminology, and created such pairs as terminology. 'matter' and 'form,' 'mean' and 'extreme,' and 'cause' and 'effect,' and such convenient expressions as 'principle,' 'maxim,' 'habit,' and 'faculty.' A more important effect of Aristotle's ideas has been that upon the formulation of doctrine in the Christian Church. After Formulation of the spread of Mohammedanism, which had largely ab- trine. sorbed the Aristotelian principles, the Church, though at first bitterly opposing them, finally found it impossible to suppress them, and began to clothe her own doctrine in their dress. The greatest of the scholastics began to study Aristotelianism, and soon made it the effective weapon of the Church by reducing all human knowledge to a finished Aristotelian system with theology at the top.

The Post-Aristotelian Schools of Philosophy.-But the harmonizing attempt of Aristotle was fruitless. Like Socrates and Plato, he failed to reconcile with the old and settled order the ever-expanding movement toward individualism. Thus all efforts to control the individualistic and disintegrating tendencies of the times were in vain, and the conquest of the Greek states by Philip of Macedon (358-338 B. C.) was only symptomatic of the complete collapse of corporate life and the inability to reconstruct it successfully. All possibility of social unity disappeared, and philosophy no longer considered the individual from the standpoint of membership in society. It was occupied no further with the harmoniza

Church doc

Triumph of individualism.

Formal study

and general knowledge.

tion of the individual and the state, but concerned itself with the welfare of the individual and the art of living. Individualism was completely triumphant, and education was considered simply as a means to personal development or happiness, without regard to one's fellows. The new theories of life and education were formulated by such schools of philosophy as the Epicureans, Stoics, and Skeptics, which kept themselves far removed from society. None of these 'schools' could be so termed in the sense of offering an education, but rather in the modern usage of a group of adherents to certain teachings. They spent their energy, for the most part, in interpreting, elaborating, and lauding the original teachings of the founders, and with them a stereotyped dogmatism took the place of philosophy.

The Schools of Rhetoric.-But these schools were not the only outcome of the teaching of the sophists. Just as they came about gradually from the speculative tendencies of the sophists as developed through certain famous philosophers, there likewise grew up more directly from the sophistic efforts to train young men in rhetoric and public speaking a multitude of rhetorical schools. In these a formal study was made of oratory and the knowledge of the day. Their professed object was to make successful men of the world, and, although they at first included such reputable and influential schools as that of Isocrates (436-338 B. C.), they laid little claim to teaching anything solid or profound, much less to forming any philosophic habits. They succeeded in spreading a popular education among a people that had lost all hope of a political life, but they soon degenerated into the use of narrow and formal methods. The

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