them with him when he undertook the education of his five young nephews at Keilhau. Here he founded (1816) 'The Universal German Institute of Education,' in through play Self-expression which self-expression, free development, and social par- work. and practical ticipation were ruling principles. Much of the training was obtained through play, and, except that the pupils were older, the germ of the kindergarten was already present. There was much practical work in the open air, in the garden about the schoolhouse, and in the building itself. The children built dams and mills, fortresses and castles, and searched the woods for animals, birds, insects, and flowers. To popularize the institute, Froebel published a complete account of the theory practiced at Keilhau in his famous Education of Man Education of (1826). While this work is compressed, repetitious, and vague, and its doctrines had afterward to be corrected by experience, it contains the most systematic statement of his educational philosophy that Froebel ever made.

Man.

Development of the Kindergarten.-But the school at Keilhau was too radical for the times, and soon found itself in serious straits. Froebel then went to Switzer- In Switzerland he began to deland, and for five years (1832-1837) continued his educa- vise playthings, games, tional experiments in various locations there. While and songs. conducting a model school at Burgdorf, it became obvious to him that "all school education was yet without a proper initial foundation, and that, until the education of the nursery was reformed, nothing solid and worthy could be attained." The School of Infancy of Comenius (see p. 171) had been called to his attention, and the educational importance of play had come to appeal to him more strongly than ever. He began to study and devise playthings, games, songs, and bodily movements

First kindergarten at

that would be of value in the development of small children, although at first he did not organize his materials into a system. Then, two years later, he returned to Germany, and established a school for children between the ages of three and seven. This institution was located at Blankenburg, two miles from Keilhau, one Blankenburg. of the most romantic spots in the Thüringian Forest, and was, before long, appropriately christened ‘Kindergarten' (i. e., garden in which children are the unfolding plants). Here he put into use the material he had invented in Switzerland, added new devices, and developed his system. The main features of this were the 'play songs' for mother and child and the series of 'gifts' and'occupations' (see pp. 358 f.). During his seven years in Blankenburg, he constantly expanded his material, and the accounts of these additions have been collected in Later works. the works known generally as Pedagogics of the Kindergarten, Education by Development, and Mother Play and Nursery Songs.

Liebenstein,

While the kindergarten attracted considerable attention, Froebel's want of financial ability eventually compelled him to close the institution. After lecturing with much success for five years upon his system, he settled for the rest of his life near the famous mineral springs Final work at at Liebenstein in Saxe-Meiningen. During this period and the Baron- he obtained the friendship and support of the Baroness von Marenholtz-Bülow, who brought a large number of people of distinction in the political and educational world to see his work in operation, and wrote most interesting Reminiscences of Froebel's activities during the last thirteen years of his life. But owing to a confusion of his principles with the socialistic doctrines of

ess von Bülow.

his nephew, Karl, a decree was promulgated in Prussia by the minister of education, closing all kindergartens there. Froebel never recovered from this unjust humiliation, and died within a year.

Rousseau,

resultant of

environment.

Froebel's Fundamental Concept of 'Unity.'—While Froebel's underlying principles go back to the developmental aspect of Pestalozzi's doctrines and even to Rousseau's naturalism, his conception of them, his from Pestaimagery, and statement, seem to be a product of the lozzi and even idealistic philosophy, romantic movement, and scientific attitude of the day. These tendencies seem to have been assimilated by Froebel largely through his residence in Jena and Berlin. His conclusions as to educational theory and practice would have been possible as inferences from a very different point of view, but as he developed them logically and consistently with his metaphysical position, it may be of value to consider briefly but largely a the groundwork of the Froebelian philosophy. He re- his university garded the 'Absolute,' or God, as the self-conscious spirit from which originated both man and nature, and he consequently held to the unity of nature with the soul of man. His fundamental view of this organic unity appears in his general conception of the universe: "In all things," says he, "there lives and reigns an eternal law. This all-controlling law is necessarily based on an all-pervading, energetic, living, self-conscious, and hence eternal Unity. This Unity is God. All things have come from the Divine Unity, from God, and have their origin in the Divine Unity, in God alone. All things live and have their being in and through the Divine Unity, in and through God. The divine effluence that lives in each thing is the essence of each thing."

Reiterations

This fundamental mystic principle Froebel constantly reiterates in various forms, and from it derives a number and subsidiary of subsidiary conceptions. These, however, play but a small part in his actual practice, and scarcely require consideration here.

concepts.

Education should be 'following.'

Motor Expression as His Method. But Froebel also holds that, "while in every human being there lives humanity as a whole, in each one it is realized and expressed in a wholly particular, peculiar, personal, and unique manner." Thus he maintains that there is in every person at birth a coördinated, unified plan of his mature character, and that, if it is not marred or interfered with, it will develop naturally of itself. While he is not entirely consistent, and at times implies that this natural development must be guided and even shaped, in the main he reiterates Rousseau's doctrine that 'nature is right,' and clearly stands for a full and free expression of the instincts and impulses. Hence he insists that "education in instruction and training should necessarily be passive, following; not prescriptive, categorical, interfering." But in his conclusion as to the proper method for accomplishing this 'development,' Froebel naturally holds that it "should be brought about not in the way of dead imitation or mere copying, but in the way of living, spontaneous self-activity." By this principle of 'Self-activity.' 'self-activity' as the method of education Froebel seeks not simply activity in response to suggestion or instruction from parents or teachers, but activity of the child in carrying out his own impulses and decisions. Individuality must be developed by such activity, and selfhood given its rightful place as the guide to the child's powers when exercised in learning. Hence with this

idea of development through 'self-activity' is connected

his principle of 'creativeness,' by which new forms and 'Creativeness.' combinations are made and expression is given to new images and ideas. "Plastic material representation in life and through doing, united with thought and speech," he declares, "is by far more developing and cultivating than the merely verbal representation of ideas."

The Social Aspect of Education. His emphasis upon this psychological principle of motor expression under the head of 'self-activity' and 'creativeness' is the chief characteristic of Froebel's method. Rousseau had also recommended motor activity as a means of learning, but he had insisted upon an isolated and unsocial education for Emile, whereas Froebel stresses the social aspects of education quite as clearly as he does the principle of self-expression. In fact, he holds that increasing self- Self-realization through social realization, or individualization through 'self-activity,' participation. must come through a process of socialization. The social instinct is primal, and the individual can be truly educated only in the company of other human beings. The life of the individual is necessarily bound up with participation in institutional life. Each one of the various institutions of society in which the mentality of the race has manifested itself-the home, the school, the church, the vocation, the state- becomes a medium for the activity of the individual, and at the same time a means of social control. As far as the child enters into the surrounding life, he is to receive the development needed for the present, and thereby also to Cooperative be prepared for the future. Through imitation of co- play. operative activities in play, he obtains not only physical, but intellectual and moral training. Such a moral and

activities in