institutions.

of the church. This domination was first seriously challenged in the eighteenth century, and while the training then furnished through the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, the Sunday schools, and other philanthropic institutions (see pp. 232 ff.), was rather Philanthropic meager, these organizations, together with the 'monitorial' instruction of the British and Foreign, and the National Societies (see pp. 240 f.), greatly advanced the cause of universal education. And toward the close of the century there began to appear a new point of view, especially with men like Bentham, Blackstone, Robert Owen, and Adam Smith, who advocated universal education, compulsory attendance, and a national system of schools.

progress.

Educational Movements in the Nineteenth Century.The theory of these great thinkers was somewhat in advance of the times, but, early in the nineteenth century, social changes began to favor better educational First signs of opportunities. The Factory Act (1802) provided for the obligatory training of apprentices; Mr. Whitbread introduced (1807) a bill to permit the civic officials of any township or parish to establish schools for the poor wherever none existed; and Brougham, while losing his bill for popular education (1820), previously secured two commissions of inquiry on school facilities. In 1832, the passage of a reform bill, which largely increased the suffrage, aroused Parliament to the need of educating the masses, and the next year the first grant, £20,000, First parliawas made for elementary education. This sum was to in 1833. be used solely to aid in building schoolhouses for which subscriptions had been privately obtained, and so could be passed as a vote of 'supply,' without referring it

mentary grant

Privy Council

in 1839.

to the House of Lords. For lack of a government organization of education, it was apportioned through the National and the British and Foreign Societies (see p. 240). Governmental activities constantly increased. In 1839 the annual grant was increased to £30,000 and allowed to be used for elementary education without restriction. In the same year, a separate comCommittee of mittee of the Privy Council was designated to administer the educational grants; and in 1856 a Vice President was appointed to act as chairman of this educational committee. Then, in 1861, through another commission on popular education, it was arranged to base the grant to any school upon the results shown by 'Payment by the pupils in the governmental examinations. This 'payment by results' was intended to increase efficiency, but, used as a sole means of testing, it soon proved narrowing and unfair, and had to be supplemented by the general opinion formed of each school by the inspectors. Yet it somewhat increased the efficiency of the work.

results' in 1861.

Agitation in behalf of universal education continued, and organizations like the 'Lancashire Public School Association' of Manchester (1847) and 'The League' of Birmingham (1869) spread rapidly through the manufacturing centers. And when the franchise was further extended in 1868, the necessity for preparing millions of the common people for new responsibilities in public In 1870 estab- affairs led in 1870 to the passage of the epoch-making 'board schools', bill of William E. Forster. Under this act 'board schools,' supported by local 'rates,' as or institutions in charge of a board chosen by the people well as grants. of the community, were to be established wherever a deficiency in the existing accommodations required it. The 'voluntary,' or denominational schools, most of

lishment of

which belonged to the Church of England, were to continue to share in the government grants upon equal terms with the new institutions, but the latter had also the benefit of local 'rates.' Elementary instruction in all schools had to be open to government inspection, and the amount of the grant was partly determined by the report of the inspectors. The board schools were forbidden to allow "any religious catechism or religious formulary, which is distinctive of any particular denomination;" and religious instruction in either type of school had to be placed at the beginning or end of the school session, so that, under the 'conscience clause' of the act, any scholar might conveniently withdraw at that time.

This act of 1870 was, of course, the magna charta of national education, and has become the basis of much school legislation. The compromise in the bill that allowed the voluntary schools, with their sectarian instruction, to continue receiving government support, however, prevented a logical and consistent system from being established. The dual system of elementary schools continued to be developed in a variety of enactments. Compulsory attendance laws were passed (1876, Compulsory 1880), the minimum age of exemption was set first at minimum age, eleven years of age, and then raised to twelve (1893, 1899), and an extra grant, to take the place of tuition free tuition, fees (1891), made it possible for most schools to become absolutely free. Finally (1899), there was created a central Board of Education, which assumed the functions and Board of of the Committee of Privy Council on Education and similar agencies for managing educational interests.

Subsequent Educational Movements. Within a generation of existence the board schools met with a phenom

Education.

In 1902 'voluntary schools also allowed local rates,

enal growth, and came to include about seventy per cent of the pupils. They were spending about half as much again upon each pupil as were the voluntary schools, and were able to engage a much better staff of teachers. This extension of civil influence in education was bitterly opposed by the Established Church, and when the conservatives came into power through the assistance of the clergy, they passed the act of 1902, whereby the denominational schools were permitted to share also in the local rates. While under this act the administration of both board and voluntary schools was now centralized in the county and city councils, the immediate supervision of instruction in the individual schools was placed in the hands of a board of managers; and, despite their receipt of local taxes, the voluntary schools were required to have but two of their managers appointed by the council, and the other four were still selected by the denomination. Serious opposition to the enforcement of the new law arose among nonconformists and others, and coercive measures were taken by the government. The new act, however, while unfair to those outside the but dual sys- Church of England, tended to sweep away the dual system of public and church schools, since both were coming to rest upon a basis of public control and support. Since 1902 all elementary schools have been considered as part of one comprehensive system, and the board schools have been distinguished as 'provided schools' and the voluntary as 'nonprovided.' Moreover, under the legislation of 1902 steps were also taken to coördinate secondary with elementary education, and bring it somewhat within the public system. The board schools had early in their existence begun to develop upward into

tem swept

away,

secondary education and before long had come to compete with the older grammar and public schools, but in 1900 the 'Cockerton judgment' forbade the use of local rates for other instruction than elementary, and it re

mained for the new act to impose upon councils the duty and secondary

supported at

to support instruction in subjects beyond the elementary instruction work. The Board of Education was also empowered to public expense. inspect the work of the great public schools and other endowed secondary institutions, and to allow grants to all schools meeting the conditions of the Board.

Bill of 1906

After the liberals returned to power, they continued the conservatives' policy of granting local rates to all elementary schools, and of bringing secondary education under public support and control. While the education bill of 1906, which was kept from passage by the House defeated, of Lords, did not recognize church schools as such, and insisted upon bringing them under the complete control of the public authorities, it made no attempt to return to the former dual system of schools and the isolation of secondary from elementary education. It still held also to religious, and, under safeguards, even to sectarian instruction in the elementary schools, and may yet be passed in a revised form. A voluntary committee for a 'resettlement in English elementary education,' through the mediation of the President of the Board of Education and the Archbishop of Canterbury, has formulated a plan, which concedes the principle of public control and but new plan, placing all support for all elementary schools and religious freedom schools under public control. for teachers and pupils, but provides local option for the continuance of denominational schools. Thus, while England is not prepared to adopt a secular system, like that of France and the United States, and has not yet