ecclesiastical

monopoly broken in

higher educa

tion.

fully articulated its secondary education with elementary, (Fig. 50), it is upon the high road to a complete centralization of school administration in the national government.

During the nineteenth century also the classical and Classical and ecclesiastical monopoly in secondary and higher education was largely broken. All the older public and gramsecondary and mar schools (see pp. 412 f.) developed 'modern sides,' and during the Victorian era a number of new schools were founded, which gave considerable attention to the modern languages and the sciences from the start. A recognition of the scientific ideals began also to appear in the curriculum of Cambridge (1851) and Oxford (1853), and the theological requirements for a degree were dropped (1856). By the last quarter of the century actual laboratories had been introduced, and students were freed from all doctrinal tests at both universities. Moreover, new universities, better adjusted to modern demands and more closely related to the school systems and the civil government, began to arise in manufacturing centers. Since 1889 such municipal or 'provincial' institutions as the Universities of Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, and Bristol have sprung up, and the University of London, started as an examining body in 1836, has become a teaching institution.

Development of Education in the Dominion of Canada.-Canada developed schools in very early days. In the beginning education was cared for in the four provinces separately, and when the Dominion of Canada was finally formed (1867), the federal government left to each province the administration of public education within its borders. The same autonomy was extended

to the provinces that have since been admitted to the federation. Two types of educational control,-state Two types, and ecclesiastical, have been developing from the first. The former method is best illustrated by the system of Ontario; and the latter by that of Quebec. Ontario (1) Ontario and (2) Quebec. was settled mostly by emigrants from England, Scotland, and the United States, and practically all brought with them the concept of public control of education. The French Catholics of Quebec, on the other hand, naturally followed their traditions of parish schools.

The Public School System of Ontario.-The system of schools in Ontario began with the passage of its Common Schools Act in 1846. This was formulated after a careful study of the systems of Massachusetts, New York, and the European states, and included excellent elements from various systems and many original features of value. By 1871 this fundamental law had come to include free tuition, compulsory attendance, county inspection, and uniform examinations. In 1876 an even greater centralization of the provincial system was ef- Universal education, and fected through substituting for the chief superintendent since 1870 a 'minister of education' with much larger powers, and bringing all stages of public education,-elementary, secondary, and higher schools, into much closer relationship. The minister now has many assistants, including an Advisory Council of Education; and he initiates and directs all school legislation, decides complaints and disputes, sets examinations for the high, elementary, model, and normal schools, prescribes the courses of study, chooses the text-books, and appoints the inspectors. The system is further administered by subordinate nate authoriauthorities elected in the localities, whose duties are

great centrali

zation through

minister

and subordi

ties.

Unification of the several

cation.

clearly defined by law. The province is for educational purposes divided into counties, which are in turn divided into townships, and subdivided into sections and incorporated cities, towns, and villages. The central and local administrations are wisely balanced, and while the one determines scholastic standards through its professional requirements, the other establishes schools and appoints teachers.

The system of elementary schools, high schools, and stages of edu- universities, is fully unified, and the work of each stage fits into the others even more exactly than in the 'ladder' system of the United States. The training of teachers is cared for through the departments of Education in the universities, the eight provincial normal schools, and a model school in each county. The teachers for secondary institutions are prepared at the universities, the normal schools grant a life certificate to teach in the elementary schools, while the model schools afford fourteen weeks of training for country teachers. The buildings, equipment, courses, and instruction of the high, elementary, and model schools are each reported upon by inspectors of assured scholarship and experience. Since 1863 permission has been granted to establish 'separate schools' for any peculiar creed or race, wherever there are five families requesting it. This opportunity to have schools of their own faith has not been embraced by any save the Roman Catholics. Any one paying toward the support of a 'separate school' is exempt from taxation for the regular public schools. Special provincial inspectors report upon these schools, but in the same way as for the public schools.

Inspectors.

'Separate schools.'

The System of Ecclesiastical Schools in Quebec.—