BOOKS OF REFERENCE Bourne (H. R. F.), Civilization in Congoland. London, 1903. Burdo (A.), Les Belges dans l'Afrique centrale. 6 vols. Brussels, 1891. Burrows (G.), The Land of the Pigmies. London, 1899. 649 Cattier (F.), Droit et Administration de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo. Bruxelles, 1898. Cattier (F.), Etude sur la situation de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo. Bruxelles, 1906. Chapaux (A.), Le Congo historique, diplomatique et colonial. Bruxelles, 1894. Coquilhat (C.), Sur le Haut-Congo. Paris, 1888. Cornoldi (A.), La Questione Congolese. Milan, 1907. Deken (C. de), Deux Ans au Congo. Bruxelles, 1901. Descamps (Baron E.), L'Afrique Nouvelle. Bruxelles, 1903. Also English Translation. London, 1903. Donny (Général), Manuel du Voyageur et du Résident au Congo. 3 vols. and supplement. Brussels, 1900-01. Dorman (M. R. P.), Journal of a Tour in the Congo Free State. London, 1905. Dupont (E.), Le Congo. Brussels, 1889. Goffart (F.) et Morissen (G.), Le Congo: Géographie physique, politique et économique. Bruxelles, 1908. Godelieve (Marie), Six ans au Congo. Bruxelles, 1898. Hinde (S. L.), The Fall of the Congo Arabs. London 1897. Johnston (Sir H. H.), The River Congo. London, 1895.-The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899. Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd Edition. London, 1895. La Belgique Maritime et Coloniale. Brussels, weekly. La Tribune Congolaise. Antwerp, weekly. Le Congo. Brussels, weekly. Le Congo Illustré. Bruxelles, 1892-95. Le Maire (C. F. A.), Congo et Belgique. noirs travaillent. Bruxelles, 1895. Bruxelles, 1894. Au Congo, comment les Le Mouvement Géographique. Brussels, weekly Lloyd (A. B.), In Dwarf and Cannibal Country. London, 1899. Louwers, Lois en vigueur dans l'Etat Indépendent du Congo. Bruxelles, 1905. Lycops (A.), Codes Congolais et Lois usuels en vigueur au Congo. Bruxelles, 1900. Mahieu, Le Télégraphe et le Téléphone au Congo, 1901. Morel (E. D.), Affairs of West Africa. London, 1902.-King Leopold's Rule in Africa, London, 1904.-Red Rubber. With Introduction by Sir H. Johnston, London, 1906. Ortroy (F. Van), Conventions Internationales concernant l'Afrique. Brussels, 1898. Pechuel-Loesche (Dr.), Kongoland. Jena, 1887. Picard (E.), En Congolie. Bruxelles, 1897. Pierantoni (R.), Le Congrès de Berlin et l' Etat Independant du Congo. Bruxelles, 1901. -Through the Dark Continent. 2 vols. London, 1878.. Trouet (L.), Le Chemin de Ferdu Congo, Brussels, 1898. 2 vols. London, 1885. Van Moesel, Etude sur la législature de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo. Brussels, 1899.-Bibliographie du Congo (1880-95). Brussels, 1896.-De Bruxelles à Karema. Bruxelles, 1901. White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890. Wildeman (E. de), Les Plantes Tropicales de Grande Culture. Bruxelles, 1902. Wildeman (E. de), et Gentil (L.), Lianes caoutchoutifères de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo. Brussels, 1903. Wissmann (H.), Im Innern Afrikas. Berlin, 1888. BHUTAN. A State in the Eastern Himálayas, between 26° 45' and 28° N. latitude, and between 89° and 92° E. longitude, bordered on the north and east by Tibet, on the west by the Tibetan district of Chumbi and by Sikkim, and on the south by British India. Extreme length from east to west 190 miles; extreme breadth 90 miles. Area about 20,000 square miles; population estimated at 250,000. The original inhabitants of Bhután, the Tephús, were subjugated about two centuries ago by a band of military colonists from Tibet. In 1774 the East India Company concluded a treaty with the ruler of Bhután, but since then repeated outrages on British subjects committed by the Bhután hill men have led from time to time to punitive measures, usually ending in the temporary or permanent annexation of various dwars or submontane tracts with passes leading to the hills. In November 1864 the eleven western or Bengal dwárs were thus annexed. A treaty was signed (November 1865) by which the rulers of Bhután receive a subsidy of Rs. 50,000, on condition of their good behaviour. This gives the Indian Government an effective control over them, while the occupation of two strong positions at Baxa and Diwángirí, within a few miles of their frontier, serves as a material guarantee against further aggression. The form of Government in Bhután, which existed from the middle of the sixteenth century until 1907, consisted of a dual control by the clergy and the laity as represented by Dharma and Deb Rájás. In 1907 the Deb Rájá, who was also Dharma Rájá, resigned his position, and the Tongsa Penlop, Sir Ugyen Wangchuk, K.C.I.E., was elected as the first hereditary Maharaja of Bhután. Chief towns: Punakha, the winter capital, a place of great natural strength; Tásichozong (Tashichödzong), the summer capital, Páro, Angduphorang (Wangdupotang), Tongsa, Taka, and Biaka. The people are nominally Buddhists, but their religious exercises consist chiefly in the propitiation of evil spirits and the recitation of sentences from the Tibetan Scriptures. Tásichozong (Tashicödzong), the chief monastery in Bhután, contains 300 priests. Beyond the guards for the defence of the various castles, there is nothing like a standing army. The chief productions are rice, Indian corn, millet, lac, wax, two kinds of cloth, musk, ponies, chowries, and silk. Muzzle-loading guns and Fords of highly-tempered steel are manufactured. Imports into Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam from Bhután 2,9757. (1907-08) and 20,1487. (1908-09). Exports from those Provinces o Bhután 40,2847. (1907-08), and 38,556. (1908-09). BOOKS OF REFERENCE CONCERNING Bhután. Accounts relating to the Trade by Land of British and India with Foreign Countries. Annual. Calcutta. Report on Explorations in Sikkim, Bhután, and Tibet, 1856-86. Edited by Lieut-Colonel G. Strahan. Dehra Dún, 1889. A Collection of Treaties and Engagements, relating to India and neighbouring Countries by C. U. Aitchison. Volume II. Part IV. Calcutta. Reports of Expeditions through Bhután in 1906 and 1907. By J. C. White. London. Sandberg (G.), Bhotan, the Unknown State. [A Reprint from the Calcutta Review.] Calcutta, 1898. White (J. C.), Sikkim and Bhután. London, 1909. BOLIVIA BOLIVIA. (REPÚBLICA BOLIVIANA.) Constitution and Government. 651 THE Constitution of the Republic of Bolivia (so named in 1825) bears date October 28, 1880. By its provisions the executive power is vested in a President, elected for a term of four years by direct popular vote, and not eligible for re-election; there is a Congress of two chambers, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The suffrage is possessed by all who can read and write. There are 16 Senators (2 for each Department) elected for six years, and 69 Deputies elected for four years. Both Senators and Deputies are elected by direct vote of the people. Of the Senators one-third retire every two years; of the Deputies one-half retire every two years. Senators and Deputies receive a salary of 500 bolivianos (407.) per month during the sittings, which, as a rule, last for 60 days, but may be extended to 90 days. Extraordinary sessions may be held for special purposes. There are a President, two Vice-Presidents and a ministry, divided into six depart. ments-of Foreign Relations and Worship; Finance and Industry; Government and Fomento; Justice and Education; War; Colonisation and Agriculture. President of the Republic.-Señor Eliodoro Villazón, elected for the term 1909-13. The supreme political, administrative, and military authority in each department is vested in a prefect. The Republic is divided into 8 departments, 55 provinces, and 437 cantons and 248 vice-cantons, administered respectively by prefects, sub-prefects, corregidores and alcaldes. Prefects and sub-prefects are appointed by the President of the Republic; corregidores and alcaldes by the sub-prefects of the provinces. The capital of each depart ment has its municipal council; the subdivisions have municipal boards, and the still smaller subdivisions have municipal agents. The territories in the north-east of the Republic and in the Gran Chaco are governed by two officials, called delegados nacionales. The Indian population in 1900 was 920,864, or 50.9 per cent. of the whole: the mixed was 486,018, or 26.7 per cent.; the white was 231,088, or 12.7 per cent.; the negro, 3,945, or 0.21 per cent.; and the unclassified, 170,936, or 94 per cent. Of the population not under 7 years of age, 564,000 were engaged in agriculture; 399,037 in the industries; 55,521 in commerce; 49,647 in the liberal professions; 36,285 in domestic service; 12,625 in mining, and 3,106 in artistic professions. The foreign population numbered 7,425, of whom 2,072 were Peruvian. The admission and settlement of immigrants are facilitated under the regulations published in March, 1906. The boundary disputes of Bolivia with Brazil and with Chile were settled by treaties of November, 1903 and October, 1904. That with Peru was settled by direct negotiations between Bolivia and Peru. The population of La Paz estimated (1909) is 78,856; Cochabamba, 24,512; Sucre (the capital), 23,416; Santa Cruz, 20,535; Tarija, 7,817; Potosí, 23,450; Oruro, 20,670; Trinidad, 4,810. The temporary capital of the colonial territory in the north-west of the republic is Riberalta; population, 2,134. The capital of the Great Eastern Chaco is Villa Montes, 1,653. Religion, Instruction, and Justice. The Roman Catholic is the recognised religion of the State; the exercise of other forms of worship is permitted. The religious orders have 18 convents (10 for males and 8 for females); the male members number about 241, the female 280; there are about 567 secular clergy. In 1900 the non-Catholic population numbered 24,245. The Church is under an archbishop (resident in Sucre) and 3 bishops. The maintenance of the Church costs the State about 200,000 bolivianos a year, 14,000 bolivianos being devoted to the propagation of the faith among the Indians. Primary instruction, free and nominally obligatory, is under the care of the municipalities. In 1906 (including industrial, parish, and private schools), there were 710 elementary schools with 1,126 teachers and 48,560 pupils. On elementary instruction the Government and municipalities spend 550,000 bolivianos annually. For secondary instruction there were 8 colleges, 5 clerical institutions, and 5 private lyceos with, in all, 126 teachers and 2,530 pupils. For superior instruction there are 17 establishments with 65 professors and 680 students. In these institutions instruction is given in law, medicine, and theology, as well as commerce and land surveying. The Republic is divided into as many university districts as there are universities; at the head of each district there is a president (called a chancellor) who is chief of the district as regards secondary and higher instruction and instruction given in private schools. At Sucre and La Paz are colleges of arts and trades directed by Salesian Fathers. In some departmental capitals are schools of commerce, and at La Paz the military college. At some places are rural schools for the natives. In all the departmental capitals there are public libraries; at La Paz are 2 museums; at Oruro and Potosí are mineralogical museums. The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court, in superior district courts, and in the courts of local justices. The Supreme Court sitting in the Capital of the Republic has 7 judges; the district courts (one in each department) have each 5 judges, except that in El Bení which has only one; the local tribunals have judges of instruction and parish alcaldes. Public justice is directed by an Attorney-General and by district and local attorneys. The administration of justice is free. Finance. The revenue of Bolivia is derived mainly from customs duties, spirit duties, silver mining, rubber export, patents, and stamps. The chief branches of expenditure are finance, war, and public works. No full statement of actual receipts and expenditure is ever published. The ordinary revenue and DEFENCE-PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 653 expenditure for 1904 and 1905 and the estimates for 1906, 1907 and 1908 were as follows (12 bolivianos 17.): Of the expenditure the chief branches for 1907 were war, 238,4387.; finance and industry, 161,9207.; Government and Fomento, 313,9457.; Justice and Instruction, 206,1607. ; colonisation, 143,4507. Bolivia has now no recognised external debt. The recognised internal debt in 1907 amounted to 4,346,529 bolivianos, besides Treasury bonds amounting to 2,500,000 bolivianos. The departmental revenues for 1906 were estimated at 167,2807. and expenditure at the same amount. These revenues are mainly from territorial contribution by natives, land taxes, taxes on tobacco, hides, inheritances, imported and exported cattle, &c. The expenditure is chiefly on justice, police, public works, instruction, and worship. The municipal revenues amount to 224,000%. Defence. Military service is compulsory for all males from the 20th to the 50th year. The army is a militia, with a total service in the first line of 5 years, of which about 1 year is spent in the ranks. For the next 5 years (from age of 25 to that of 30) the Bolivian soldier belongs to the ordinary reserve.' After this the men pass to the 'extraordinary reserve' for 10 years, and finally complete their service by 10 years in the Territorial Guard. The only permanent formations are 6 infantry battalions of about 300 men each, 2 cavalry regiments of about 400 each, one field and two mountain batteries, the total peace strength being about 2,500. But a considerable force could be mobilised in event of war. In addition to the above troops, there are small bodies of infantry, 40 to 80 strong (called columnas), at the chief towns of departments, which can be expanded to battalions, if necessary; also 2 squadrons which do duty in Gran Chaco. The 3rd infantry battalion is stationed in the north, on the Peruvian frontier, where large profits are made from the india-rubber collected in the primeval forests. The Bolivian infantry are armed with the Mauser rifle, model 1898, and the mountain batteries have a modern shielded gun from the Creuzot works. Production and Industry. It is estimated that about 4,940,000 acres are under cultivation, but agriculture is in a backward condition. Irrigation by means of artesian wells is being attempted in some regions. Wheat, maize, barley, beans, potatoes, are produced mostly for local consumption, and coffee, coca, quina, &c., are exported to Chile and Argentina. Coca and coffee are grown ou |