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sacred historians-the instruments of agriculture There is nothing to hinder the immediate adop and of music, in so far as they are known, the man- tion of such arrangements, but that spirit of jealousy ner of grinding corn, the plan and form of the which too much prevails among persons of the Eastern buildings, the war chariots and battering- same profession, and which prevents a friendly inrams of the ancients-views of modern Jerusalem, tercourse among them for concerting measures for with plans of the relative positions of Mount Zion, the good of the whole. A few obstinate and selfish Mount Calvary, Mount of Olives, the brook Ki- characters, in the spirit of contradiction, would dron, &c.-views of Bethlehem, Nazareth, Joppa, doubtless, set themselves in opposition to such reguthe ruins of Tyre, Zidon, Babylon, and other cities lations; but as their sordid and avaricious views mentioned in Scripture, as illustrative of the ful-would be apparent to every one, they would soon filment of prophecy, which may be collected from be despised and deserted by the respectable portion the embellishments contained in the works of mo- of the community, and would suffer the natural dern travellers-delineations illustrating the man- consequences which almost invariably flow from ners and customs of the Eastern nations-maps of selfishness and avarice. There is no man who, in Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, Assyria, Idumea, Baby- such a case, sets himself in opposition to the general lonia, Persia, Greece, the islands of the Mediterra- good of a community, that ought to be regarded as nean, and the Roman Empire, for illustrating the a Christian; as such conduct is directly opposed to journeyings of Jesus Christ, the travels of the the precept which enjoins us "to love our neighbor Apostles, the route of the Israelites, through the as ourselves," and "to look not merely on our own wilderness, and the descriptions of the ancient pro- things, but also on the things of others." Such an phets. Engravings might also be given of the more arrangement, while it could be injurious to nose, remarkable animals, trees and flowers, to which al- would be highly beneficial to all. It would afford lusions are frequently made in the Sacred writings. leisure for public, private, and domestic intercourse Such views and delineations might be given at an-for attending philanthropic associations, or lecexpense much less than what is generally incurred tures on any branch of useful knowledge-for inin engraving the paltry and fictitious representations proving their minds in wisdom and virtue-for into which we have alluded; and they would cer-structing their children, and enjoying the sweets tainly be much more congenial to the taste of intelligent readers of the Bible, and much more conducive to the illustration of the scenes described by the Sacred prophets and historians.

IV. Knowledge and moral improvement might be promoted by abridging the hours of labor.

One great objection to the prosecution of knowledge and general improvement is founded on the fact, that the bulk of mankind have not sufficient leisure from their daily avocations for such purposes. This is partly true in regard to merchants' clerks, haberdashers, grocers, apothecaries, and their apprentices and shopmen, and those employed in spinning mills and several other manufactories. In these cases, shops are kept open, and persons employed from six in the morning till eight, and even till ten or eleven o'clock in the evening. But there is no necessity, in order to carry on the business of life, that such long hours of labor and attendance on shops should be imposed either on masters or servants. All the business usually carried on in shops and manufactories could be transacted, without inconvenience to any party, between the hours of seven or eight in the morning, and six in the evening, if proper arrangements were made for that purpose. When once the public is aware that certain shops are shut up at a particular hour, every one would endeavor to supply himself with the articles he required from such shops before that hour arrived; and though they were to be kept open till twelve at midnight, or one in the morning, we know, from experience, that certain individuals would postpone their purchases, till these hours had nearly arrived. In order to prevent any inconvenience to society, by the shops of bakers, grocers, apothecaries, or others, being closed at an early hour, an arrangement might be made to have one shop of every class kept open to a later hour, in every street or district of a town, so that, on any unforeseen emergency, articles of provisions, groceries, medicines, &c. might be procured. Every shopkeeper of this description would, of course, have his turn, in succession, of keeping open his shop during these extra hours, and of reaping, in rotation, the additional profits that might accrue, so that, in the course of a year or less, all would find themselves on an equal footing in regard to the quantity of business transacted, and the advantages gained, by keeping open in rotation their shops till later hours.

of domestic intercourse-and for taking an active
part in all those schemes which tend to promote the
best interests of society. In particular, it would af-
ford an opportunity to merchants' clerks, shopmen,
apprentices, and others, of attending societies, lec-
tures, schools, or other seminaries of instruction,
for improving both their intellectual and moral pow-
ers-for want of which opportunities many young
persons of this description rise up to manhood in
comparative ignorance, and easily slide into the
paths of folly and intemperance. But, before such
an arrangement is effected, it would be previously
requisite that seminaries, such as those formerly
suggested, be established, for promoting the instruc-
tion of the classes to which I allude, so that their
evening hours may not be spent in sloth or licen-
tiousness. In regard to weavers, masons, tailors,
carpenters, mill-spinners, and common laborers,
eight hours a day employed in labor, instead of ten
or eleven, might be sufficient for all the purposes of
society. Since the invention of modern machinery,
a much greater quantity of labor than formerly can
be effected in the same time. It appears to me, that
the Governor of the world, in permitting such in-
ventions for facilitating the process of manufac
tures, evidently intends thereby that the period of
human labor should be abridged, in order to afford
scope to all classes of society for mental, moral, and
religious improvement, and in order to prepare the
way for that period when "the knowledge of the
Lord shall cover the earth." It ought, therefore, to
be considered as a misapplication of machinery
when it is employed chiefly for the purpose of en-
riching and aggrandizing a few individuals, while
the mechanic and laborer are deprived both of the
physical and moral advantages which it was in-
tended to produce.

V. Knowledge might be promoted by a proper direction of public amusements.

There can be no impropriety, at certain intervals, of gratifying the mass of society with an exhibition of public amusements. But such amusements should always be blended, if possible, with moral and intellectual instruction-be congenial to the dignity and the high destination of man-and ought never to interfere with the purity of Christian morals. We have public amusements of various descriptions, such as stage plays, balls, masquerades, horse-racing, cock-fighting, ball-bating, equestrian feats and exhibitions, tricks of legerdemain, rope-dancing,

&c. &c. ; but most, if not all, of these have an im-C the focal point, a little within which several moral tendency, and some of them are inconsistent spectators might stand with their faces to the specuwith humanity, and degrading to the character of lum, and view the distant objects behind them.man. Instead of such trifling and demoralizing Where A B a large convex lens of a similar focus, amusements, such exhibitions as the following the spectators could stand in a similar position and might be adopted:-1. Air Balloons, of a pretty view the objects before them.-5. Philosophical and large size, which might be sent up into the atmo- chemical experiments, of various descriptions, on a sphere either with or without living beings, and large scale, might be exhibited-such as the explomight be rendered subservient for investigating at- sion of a bladder full of oxygen and hydrogen gas, mospherical phenomena, the different currents and by means of an electric spark, which produces a electrical states of the air, and other particulars.- tremenduous sound-the breaking of a piece of At the same time, descriptions and explanations glass or bladder, or a large square bottle, by the might be given to the assembled multitude, of the pressure of the atmosphere-the burning of charnature of balloons, the principle on which they as- coal or phosphorus in oxygen gas, which produces cend, the mode of inflating them, the facts which a most brilliant illumination-the ascent of turpenhave been ascertained by means of them in regard tine, when tinged of a red color, through water in to the upper regions of the atmosphere, the nature long glass tubes, which produces a beautiful effect and use of the parachute, and various details in re- -the burning of spirits of wine, after having been lation to aerial navigation.-2. Panoramas, or per- boiled, which produces an extensive and beautiful spective exhibitions, on a large scale of ancient and jet or spout of fire-the Chinese lights, and an inmodern buildings, cities, towns, ranges of moun- definite variety of similar striking experiments, all tains, sea-ports, volcanoes, grottos, romantic rural of which might, at the same time, be familiarly exscenery, and whatever is grand, beautiful and inter-plained. esting, in the scenes of Nature and Art. Such paroramic scenes, while they could not fail to gratify halls, in squares, or in open areas in the neighborSuch exhibitions might be made either in large every spectator, would convey to the mind ideas hood of towns, according to the nature of the exhiwhich could not be derived from any other source, bition; and the best instrumental music might acexcept the actual view of the objects represented.3. Camera obscuras, on a large scale, constructed in company them, and might occasionally be enlivened the manner formerly described, (p. 78.) If these with their voices. The expense of such exhibitions by the surrounding multitudes joining in unison were constructed with large lenses of twenty or thirty would be far less than the sums generally wasted feet focal distance, their magnifying power, on dis- in the encouragement of horse-racing, theatrical tant objects, would be equal to that of a telescope diversions, and similar amusements; and, while magnifying from thirty to about fifty times, which would show the distant scenery of a country with they tended to increase rational information, and to great minuteness, and people, sheep, and other ani- gratify the principle of curiosity, would be much mals, at the distance of many miles, while more There are certain towns in this country whose mamore congenial to the taste of intelligent minds.than a score of persons at one time might contem-gistrates give, from the public funds, more than a plate such a scene.-4. Telescopes, constructed of a hundred guineas annually for the encouragement single convex lens, or a concave speculum of a of horse-races, besides the expenses connected with long focal distance, for example, from twenty-five the various preparations and erections deemed neto forty feet, might be fixed in certain positions, so that several individuals at the same time might per- a small contribution from each individual, (for excessary on such occasions. Such sums, along with ceive their effect on distant objects. Sir W. Hers- ample, an English penny or twopence,) would, in chel informs us that, by looking with his naked eye general, be adequate to defray the expenses of such on the speculum of his forty feet telescope, without the interposition of any lens or mirror, he perceived distinctly one of the statellites of Saturn; so that such an instrument would present a brilliant view either of the moon or of terrestrial objects. The

manner of looking at objects with such an instrument is represented above, where A B represents a concave mirror or speculum of a long focal distance,

exhibitions.

VI. Knowledge and rational enjoyment might be

*The Chinese lights are produced by the following composition:-Take twelve parts of nitre, five and a half of sulphur, one-half of orpiment, one-half of indigo, one-half of gunpowder, all finely pounded and intimately mixed. When this composition is set fire to by a burning match, it produces a most splendid illumination. In the year 1814, when peace with France was proclaimed, a friend of mine, at the request of the magistrates of Paisley, got a large quantity of this composition prepared, which was ignited on the parapet which surrounded the spire of the High Church of that town, and which burned for more than half-an-hour, producing the most brilliant illumination over all the town, and was an object of curiosity at Glasgow, about eight miles distant. It would be visible from elevated situations more than thirty miles distant. Such was the splendor of the light, that the birds rose from their nests, and flew around it, as if it had been the rising sun. At the same time, a balloon, made of the allantois of a calf, was sent up into the atmosphere, and a number of large bladders, filled with oxygen and hydrogen gas, were exploded, by being held in the Chinese lights, which produced sounds which were heard over all the town. The composition expended on this occasion cost about ten pounds; but a quantity sufficient for a common experiment may be procured for two or three shillings.

increased by erecting observatories in every town and | to the nature of man, that any human beings should populous village. be doomed to spend their lives in such wretched These observatories might be furnished, not only habitations. It tends, not only to debase the moral with some of the best achromatic telescopes for character, but to prevent the expansion of the huviewing terrestrial and celestial objects, but like-man intellect. Instead of an extensive landscape, wise with several articles of philosophical appara- adorned with flowers and verdure, and the view of tus, and specimens of natural history. In studying the expansive canopy of heaven-the inmates of the science of the heavens, there is nothing more such dwellings, for months and years, have nothing gratifying to those who have acquired a relish for presented to the eye but a dead murky wall bespatthis subject, than to view the telescopic objects de- tered with filth, which confines the range of their scribed by astronomers, such as the moons and belts vision within the compass of a few feet, and preof Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, the crescent of Ve- vents them from becoming acquainted even with nus, the mountains and vales of the moon, the ne- the common scenes of nature. What has been now bulæ, the double stars, and other interesting celestial stated will apply in a greater or less degree to alphenomena. Such views tend to produce a higher most all our cities and large towns, and even to relish for astronomical studies and rational investi- some of our villages. Were we to inquire into the gations; and no pictorial representations can serve circumstances which led men thus to immure themas a substitute, or convey the same ideas as actual selves in gloomy holes and corners, like bats and observations by good instruments. But the majori- owls, we should doubtless find that the abominable ty of rational inquirers and of the community at system of warfare has been one of the chief causes large are deprived of such views, on account of the of the evil of which we complain. Man, living at expense of such instruments. An establishment of enmity with his fellow-man, judged it expedient to this kind might be set on foot, either by a grant of surround his habitations with a huge wall for promoney from a public fund, or by subscription. All tection against the inroads of his hostile neighbors; the instruments requisite, in the first instance, would and the problem to be solved, in this case, seems be, a large achromatic telescope for viewing celes- to have been, 'In how small a space can we comtial phenomena, and an equatorial telescope, for illus-press the greatest number of inhabitants, so that trating practical astronomy, and viewing the stars our wall and fortifications shall cost us the least and planets in the daytime. These might be pur- trouble and expense? Small towns and villages chased for about forty guineas, (see article Astro- which were afterwards built, and which required nomy, pp. 80, 81,) and if an hundred and twenty no fortifications, copied the plan and dimensions of individuals were to co-operate in such an under-their streets from the fortified towns, and thus the taking, the subscription would be only seven shillings to each, and, if an additional subscription of about two shillings a-year were paid, in the course of a few years the apparatus might be considerably increased. One special advantage arising from the universal establishment of observatories would be, that the true time might always be accurately ascertained, and the public clocks regulated accordingly-on which circumstance depends, in certain cases, the determining of the altitude of certain atmospherical phenomena, such as a fiery meteor, or a luminous arch, when seen by different observ-20 square miles, and a similar mass, in another part ers in places distant from each other.

VII. The improvement of towns, villages, and roads, is intimately connected with the advancement of society.

There are few circumstances in the state of society which exhibit the folly and depravity of man in a more striking point of view, than the state of most of the cities and towns of Europe and other parts of the world—not even excepting the British empire. In some of our cities we have palaces, churches, colleges, and public buildings, of the most magnificent description, while the great mass of the population around are living in miserable habitations in narrow dirty lanes, which are seldom or never visited by the rays of the sun, or the refreshing breeze. In the High street of Edinburgh and its environs, which contain a greater number of human habitations than any other spot of the same extent on the surface of the globe, the inhabitants appear to be huddled together like so many rabbits in their cells. The houses are from five to eight and ten stories high, with numerous narrow lanes or closes, from four to six feet wide, branching from the street, and running down a great extent towards a hollow on each side. In these closes there is neither light nor pure air, but a continual gloom and noisome exhalations; and the physical filth and darkness which abound are generally emblems of the moral pollution and scenes of depravity which are too frequently exhibited in such habitations. Such abodes are incompatible, not only with physical comfort, but with any attempts at improvement in knowledge; and it is a kind of degradation

whole of our cities, towns, and villages have been bungled and deranged.

Great cities, especially when ill-planned, may be considered as great evils. The Creator evidently intended that the population of the globe should be more equably distributed than it is at present. We are told that "He created it not in vain, but formed it to be inhabited." But, how monstrous a disproportion is there in the distribution of its population, when we find a mass of human beings, as in London, compressed into a space of little more than

of the same island, spread over an extent of 20,000 square miles! There appears to be no reason, except in a very few cases, why any city should extend beyond a population of a hundred thousand inhabitants; and a city containing such a population should occupy five times the area that it does at present. Towns distributed at nearly equal distances over the face of a country, would be of far more importance for the general improvement of society than a few crowded cities with an overgrown population, and more conducive to the health and morals of the inhabitants.-There is one circumstance that characterizes almost all our cities, towns, and villages, except in some recent instances; and that is, the extreme narrowness of the streets, some of which do not exceed 15 or 20 feet in width. Even in the United States of America, where the towns have been more recently built, and formed on more expansive plans than in Europe, this evil is found to exist. The street Broadway in New York, which is so much celebrated, and which is 3 miles in length, is only 80 feet broad, and most of the other streets are considerably narrower. Most of the streets in Philadelphia are little more than 50 feet broad, except Broad street and Market street, the latter being 100, and the former 113 feet in breadth. Most of the small towns, however, in the Northern States, such as New-Haven, Northampton, and others, are described by travellers as having broad streets and spacious squares, and remarkable for their cleanliness and beauty. In Great Britain, most of the streets, especially in sea-port towns, are wretchedly narrow and dirty. In North-Shields,

county of Northumberland, the main street is near-ing, promenading, and other purposes.-10. Cerly a mile long, but so narrow that in many places tain streets might be allotted for houses of one or two carriages cannot pass each other. The New two stories, for the accommodation of those who Town of Edinburgh, which contains the most spa- have it not in their power to occupy more stately cious and elegant streets of any city in Europe, is mansions, so as to preserve uniformity in every disgraced with two or three long narrow streets, street; but such streets should be equally broad, and not above one-fourth the breadth of the others, in- adorned in the same manner as the other streets.tended for the residence of the lower classes; as if 11. Between the different streets should be gardenthey had no right to enjoy a free light, pure air, and plots for every family, and accommodation for washa cheerful prospect, as well as their superiors.-ing and bleaching, as also for erecting workshops The following hints are suggested in relation to for smiths, carpenters, weavers, &c. wherever they the improvement of towns and villages; though I are required.-12. Encouragement should be given have no hope of living to see them realized in my in the neighborhood of large towns, and throughout native country. the country at large, for building towns on such 1. Most of our crowded towns should be demo- plans, and for transforming our present hamlets and lished, or at least their streets ought to be widened, villages into more convenient and pleasant places of at an average three times their present breadth.- residence. If mankind were united by the bonds Extravagant as this proposal may appear, there is of Christian affection, and if all were as anxious to nothing that stands in the way of its accomplishment promote the happiness of their fellow-men, as the but selfishness and avarice. If the promotion of the greater part are to hoard up wealth and riches which comfort and happiness of our species were the great they can never enjoy, all the improvements now object of our ambition, all difficulties would soon suggested could casily be accomplished within the evanish, and all obstructions would speedily be re- course of a few years, or, at farthest, within the moved; and why call ourselves Christians, if this limits of the next generation. But so long as avaobject is not kept in view 1-2. No street in any rice sways its sceptre over the human breast, no extown or village should be less than 80 feet wide.--tensive improvement, either in knowledge, religion, In large towns, where the houses are above two or or physical comfort, can be effected. three stories in height, the streets should not be less than 100 or 120 feet in breadth.-3. Narrow lanes and closes, of all descriptions, ought to be for ever banished from all our towns and cities.--4. The practice of sinking stories below the level of a street, unless for cellars, should be laid aside. It has become an almost universal practice in Edinburgh, and other towns, especially in genteel houses, to have a sunk story for the kitchen and servants' rooms, as if they were unworthy of enjoying free light and pure air, and their health in no danger from the dampness of such apartments. There is something absurd and preposterous in being at the expense of digging a hole for the under story of a house, when a kitchen and laundry could be built behind the house, on the level of the street, which would be more convenient and salubrious.-5. Houses might be built with flat roofs, with a parapet surrounding them, breast high, which would form a promenade for families in towns, where they would enjoy an airing and a prospect of surrounding objects, with-manding view, not only of the interior of the circle, out removing from their own dwellings. It would also serve for drying clothes, contemplating the heavens, and various other purposes. In Eastern countries, where the houses are constructed with flat roofs, they form the sleeping places of the family during the summer months. The rain that falls upon them might be so conducted as to supply every family with water for washing, and cooking victuals. -6. Squares, crescents, or octagonal spaces, should be appropriated in different parts of a town, for bazaars, or shops where all kinds of merchandise should be sold; each shop having an apartment or two connected with it, for the temporary accommodation of a family.-7. The streets more particularly appropriated for dwelling-houses, should have verandas or garden-plots in front of the houses on each side, diversified with shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, and, at certain regular distances, a few forest trees, so that the street, although 80 feet broad, would require only about 40 feet of pavement.8. In every large city, open spaces, within the city, should be set apart for pleasure walks for the citizens, and diversified with trees, evergreen shrubs, seats, and bowers for shelter from the heat or rain. In small towns, such rural walks should be formed to go quite round them.-9. A square plot of meadow ground, at each end of a town, might be set apart for public meetings, amusements, or exhibitions, which might also serve for grazing, bleach-exist.

The following engraving exhibits a plan of a town of a moderate size, which, with a few modifications, according to circumstances, might be copied, in the formation of new towns and villages. In this plan all the streets cross one another at right angles, and are supposed to be at least 80 feet broad. In the centre there is a circular space about 240 feet diameter, from which four streets diverge to each quarter of the town. The central part of this circle might be formed into a bowling green, diversified with shrubs and flowers; or a circular tower might be erected in the midst of it to overtop the surrounding buildings, on the top of which a large camera obscura and some telescopes might be placed, for the purpose of surveying the heavenly bodies, or the surrounding country. The four openings into this circular space might be about forty feet wide, or half the breadth of the streets, which would afford the houses at each end of the four crescents a com but of the whole street in both directions. Instead of a circle, an octagon, if judged more convenient, might be adopted. Directly opposite this central circle, on the north and south extremities of this town, are two squares, each of whose sides is about 170 feet long, and at the east and west extremities two crescents, about 360 feet in diameter. In each of the squares, and in the middle part of the crescents, a church or other public building might be erected; and the entrance to these squares, &c. from the country, might be by a broad arch-way under one of the buildings. The principal shops might be placed, and the principal business of the town transacted, in the squares, crescents, and central circle. The spaces between the backs of the houses in the different streets might be set apart either for gardens, washing-houses, or workshops for the different mechanical professions. These spaces should be from 120 to 150 feet wide. A walk should be made to go round the whole town, decorated with trees, shrubs, and bowers; and on each side of the town should be a large common or bleaching green. The extent of such a town would be about a mile and a quarter in circumference, but might be indefinitely extended according to circumstances. Such a town would undoubtedly be much more commodious, pleasant, and salubrious than most of the small towns and villages that now