order of nature, although directly opposite to the for the purpose of forming canals, tunnels, and rail order generally pursued.*

SECTION VII.- Geology.

roads-operations which are now going forward in almost every part of the civilized world-a knowledge of this subject could not fail to be highly beneficial to all parties engaged in such projects. Besides, the study of this science is intimately connected with Scripture history and theology, and its facts, when viewed in a proper light, have a tendency to elucidate certain portions of the sacred writings, and to illustrate the harmony and the connec tion which subsist between the visible operations of the Creator and the revelations of his word. For these reasons, it might be expedient to communicate to the young a general idea of some of the leading facts connected with geology, without perplexing them with any of the speculations of phi losophers, or the theories which have been formed to account for geological phenomena; leaving them to deduce their own conclusions at a future period, when their knowledge of such subjects shall be increased, and their judgment matured.

Geology is a science which, of late years, has excited the attention of philosophers, naturalists, and theologians; and, in consequence of the researches of its votaries, many striking and important facts in relation to the structure of the earth and the changes it has undergone, have been brought to light. Many of the facts which this science discloses have a tendency to convey to the mind impressions of the wisdom, and particularly of the power of the Creator, in those stupendous forces which produced the convulsions and changes which have taken place both on the surface and in the interior strata of the globe. They are likewise applicable to various practical.purposes. A minute and circumstantial knowledge of the various facts which have been ascertained by geologists in different countries, may be of extensive use to those employed in mining operations, when searching for A brief description might be given, in the first coal, fossil sat, or metallic veins, and might prevent place, of the solid parts of the earth, of the various many ruinous speculations to which ignorant pro-sifications which geologists have made of the differstrata of which they are composed, and of the clas jectors are frequently subjected. In excavations

Since writing the preceding parts of this work, miliar with all the departments of geographical, I have been favored, through the liberality of a re- physical, and mathematical science. His geographispected literary correspondent in the State of Con- cal works are rich in information in respect to eve necticut, North America, with a variety of school-ry topic connected with his general subject, and books on geography and other subjects, which have have received the approbation of the Geographical an extensive circulation in the New England States. Society of Paris, and of many scientific characters Among these are the following:-1. Woodbridge's on the continent of Europe, particularly Humboldt System of Universal Geography, on the princi- and Fellenberg.-3. " A Practical System of Mo ples of comparison and classification. 5th edition, dern Geography," by J. Olney, A. M.—an 18mo. 1833." This work, comprised in a thick 12mo. vo- of 288 pages, closely printed on a plan somewhat lume of 500 very closely printed pages, compre- similar to Woodbridge's Rudiments, illustrated with hends an immense mass of information on physical, nearly a hundred engravings, and containing a very civil, and statistical geography, including descrip- considerable portion of useful information. This tions of a great variety of facts in relation to the work has passed through fifteen editions.-4. "The geological structure of the earth. It is illustrated Malte-Brun School Geography," by Mr. Goodrich, by nearly a hundred engravings of natural and ar- a large 18mo. volume of nearly 300 pages, and contificial objects; such as sections of rivers, canals, taining about 133 engravings. This work contains comparative elevation of mountains, cataracts, races a larger quantity of letter-press than the two former, of man, geological sections, cities and public build- and a great variety of facts in relation to civil and ings, which both enliven and elucidate the descrip- descriptive geography, but is not so full as Woodtions. Appended to this work, is a lucid and judi- bridge's volumes in its details of physical and stacious compend of "Ancient Geography, as con- tistical geography. Fifteen thousand copies of this nected with Chronology," including sketches of work were sold in the space of eighteen months sacred history, mythology, and the early history of from the date of its first publication. The AtlasseS mankind, by Mrs. Willard-a lady who appears to belonging to these works are beautifully executed, have made considerable researches into the differ- and contain several of the projections I have sugent departments of geographical science, and to gested above, besides sets of maps as usually delihave promoted the cause of general education.--neated, along with a variety of useful descriptions Both these works are admirably calculated for the and statistical tables. In the Atlas which accomhigher classes in schools, and abound with a great panies Olney's "Practical System," the population number of questions and exercises, for stimulating of the respective towns and cities can be ascertainthe attention and ingenuity of the young. Had this ed at a glance, by means of certain characters and volume been sparsely printed, according to the figures connected with their names. Hall's "Child's fashion that prevailed 20 or 30 years ago, like Book of Geography," and Peter Parley's "Geo"Playfair's Geography" and other works, it would graphy for Children," each of them containing have occupied wo or three quarto volumes of 1500 about a hundred pages, in a square 18mo. size, and pages.-2. Woodbridge's "Rudiments of Geogra- embellished with a variety of maps and cuts, apphy, on a new plan," 18mo. containing 208 closely pear well calculated to interest the minds of youth, printed pages, and about 170 cuts, and comprising and to convey a general idea of the leading features a very considerable portion of information on the of the world. Some of the above works, with a different departments of geography. It may be con- few alterations, might be published with advantage sidered as partly an abridgment of the larger in Great Britain. They contain more particular work noticed above, and partly an introduction to maps and descriptions of the United States than are it. The cuts, though small, are sufficiently vivid to be found in geographical works published on this and distinct to convey an accurate idea of the ob- side of the Atlantic. A comprehensive and useful jects they are intended to represent. It has passed compend of geography for the use of schools, might through seventeen editions, comprising more than be compiled from the volumes now mentioned, by 200,000 copies. Mr. Woodbridge is a correspond-selecting the descriptions, exercises, and more intering member of the Geographical Society of Paris, esting portions of each, and combining them into a and Editor of the American "Annals of Educa- volume calculated for the meridian of our own tion;" and a gentleman who appears to be quite fa- country.

SECTION VIII.—Astronomy.

be procured of basalt, gneiss, greenstone, lava, por- | mark the place of his going down. Next morning phyry, graywacke, and other substances mentioned or the first clear morning afterwards, they may be above. About thirty specimens in all are sufficient placed in the same situation, and, having first refor illustrating the classes of geology. Without an quested them to point to the place where the sun exhibition of these, in connection with geological disappeared the evening before, their attention descriptions, no definite ideas can be conveyed to should next be directed to the point of his rising, the mind of the student on this subject.*. and to mark the terrestrial objects in the direction of which he appeared to rise. The difference between the points of his setting and of his rising should be particularly impressed upon their minds. Astronomy is a science which has for its object to On this day, too, about twelve o'clock, they should explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, their be directed to attend to the sun's meridian altitude. various aspects, and the facts which have been as- These observations may either be accompanied with certained in the planetary system and throughout certain appropriate remarks, or the pupils may be the region of the fixed stars. This is a subject of left, in the meantime, to ruminate upon them, to considerable interest and utility. It is intimately consider them simply as facts, which may be afterconnected with geography, navigation, agriculture, wards adverted to, and to form their own conclucommerce, chronology, and other arts and sciences, sions. Similar observations may be made from the and has lent its aid to promote their improvement. same spot about the 23d September, and particularThe study of it is likewise attended with many ly about the middle of December, when the direc pleasures and advantages in a moral, intellectual, tion of the rising and setting sun, his meridian altiand religious point of view. It expands the range tude, and the apparent diurnal arc he describes, of the human intellect, and unfolds to our view the will appear very different, when compared with the tnost striking displays of the perfections of the Dei- observations made in the month of June. Their alty, particularly the grandeur of his Omnipotence. It tention might next be directed to the phases and mosets before us objects of overpowering magnitude tions of the moon. About three days after new and sublimity, and demonstrates the unlimited ex- moon, when the lunar crescent first makes its aptent and magnificence of the universal empire of pearance, they may be directed to mark the form of the Almighty. It has a tendency to raise the soul the cresent, the most conspicuous stars in its vicabove grovelling pursuits and affections, to inspirenity, and its apparent distance from the place where hope, reverence, and humility, and to excite to the the sun went down. Every clear evening aftercontemplation of objects far surpassing every thing wards, the gradual increase of the crescent, its mo we behold in this terrestrial scene, and worthy of tion among the stars, and the apparent distance it the dignity of immortal minds. In short, it prepares has moved during every successive period, should the mind for the employments of the future world, be particularly marked, till it arrive at the eastern and demonstrates that the Creator has it in his pow- part of the horizon after the sun has set in the west, er to distribute endlessly diversified streams of feli- when it will appear a full enlightened hemisphere. city, among every order of his intelligent offspring, During the months of August, September, and Octhroughout all the revolutions of eternity. It is a tober, when the effect of the harvest-moon is apparent, subject, therefore, on which a certain portion of in- they may be directed to trace the gradual dimino formation should be communicated to the young, tion of the full moon, through its different stages of and to every human being. decrease, till it assume the form of a half moon or a In communicating to the young instructions on large crescent. During the months of March or this subject-instead of commencing with defini- April, their attention may be directed to the differ tions of astronomical terms, and a vague description ence in the time of its rising on each successive day of the solar system, as is frequently done,-the pu- after full moon, from what takes place during the pils should be gradually prepared for acquiring a months of harvest,-in the one case, namely, in general knowledge of the principles of the science, harvest, there being only about 20 minutes of differby being taught to observe, with their own eyes, the ence after full moon, in its rising on each succesmotions and general phenomena of the heavens. The sive day; while in spring, the difference is nearly an first object to which their attention might be direct- hour and a half, which prevents her, at that season, ed, is the apparent motion of the sun. On some from being seen in the form of a half moon, during clear evening, in the month of June, (in our north- her decrease, till early in the morning;-whereas, ern latitude,) they may be placed in a situation in harvest, she may be seen rising in the north-east, where they may behold the setting sun, and be de-in the form of a half moon, about 8 or 9 in the evensired to take particular notice of such objects as ing.

They may next be directed to attend to some of *Books on geology have, of late years, increased the principal stars, and the more conspicuous conboth in number and in the interesting nature of the stellations, and particularly to the apparent diurnal discussions they contain. The names of Bakewell, motion of the whole celestial vault. The month of Macculloch, Delabeche, Buckland, Ure, Lyell, &c. January is perhaps the most eligible season for such are well known as cultivators of this department of observations. About the middle of that month, at natural science. The new edition of Mr. Lyell's eight o'clock in the evening, the most striking and "Principles of Geology," in 4 vols. 12mo. lately brilliant constellations visible in the northern hemipublished, is perhaps one of the most luminous and sphere are then above the horizon. The Pleiades attractive works which has hitherto been published or Seven Stars, and other portions of the constellaon this subject-though perhaps somewhat deficient tion Taurus, are nearly on the meridian, at an elein what relates to the primary and secondary rocks, vation of above 60 degrees. The splendid consteland embodying certain statements which some will lation Orion, to the south of Taurus, is a little to be apt to consider as scarcely consistent with the the east of the meridian; Canis Minor to the east, records of sacred history. Dr. Comstock, of Hart- and Canis Major to the south-east of Orion. Nearford, State of Connecticut, has lately published, inly due east, and near the horizon, is the zodiacal a duodecimo vol. of about 340 pages, an interesting constellation Leo. To the west of the meridian are work entitled, "Outlines of Geology," which con- the constellations Aries, Pisces, Cetus, Andromeda, tains a popular and comprehensive view of this sub- Pegasus, and Cassiopeia, which is not far from the ject, and is peculiarly adapted to the instruction of zenith. To the north-east is Ursa Major, or the general readers. Great Bear, sometimes distinguished by the name

the north-west, after an interval of about seventeen hours-that all the stars within a certain distance of the pole never appear to rise or set, but describe compiete circles above the horizon-that the stars near the pole, such as those in the Great Bear, appear in one part of their course to move from west to east, and in another part of it from east to westand that the revolutions of the whole, however different the circles they apparently describe, are completed in exactly the same period of time. These positions may afterwards be more particularly illustrated by means of a large celestial globe, by which it will be seen that all these appearances are the result of one general apparent motion, which, at first

of the Plough, or Charles's Wain. The star Aldebaran, or the Bull's Eye, is nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of 54°, supposing the place of observation to be in 52° north latitude. It is distinguished by its ruddy appearance. The brilliant star Capella is nearly 326 north-by-east from Aldebaran, not far from the zenith; and Rigel, in the left foot of Orion, is about 27° south-by-east of Aldebaran, and a little east of the meridian. Betelgeux is northeast from Rigel, and forms a right-angled triangle with it and Aldebaran. The stars Castor and Pollux are east-by-north from Aldebaran, at a considerable distance from it, (45°,) and nearly halfway between the zenith and the eastern horizon. Nearly straight south from Pollux and east from Betel-view, will appear to exist in the celestial sphere.— geux, is Procyon. These three stars form a rightangled triangle, the star Procyon being at the right angle. Near the south-eastern part of the horizon, and a little elevated above it, is Sirius, or the Dogstar, which is generally reckoned the most brilliant fixed star in the heavens. West from Rige!, at a considerable distance, (46°,) and at nearly the same elevation above the horizon, is Mira, or the Wonderful star, which changes from a star of the second magnitude, so as to become invisible once in a period of 334 days. The brilliant star Lyra is northnorth-west, very near the horizon. The two stars in the Great Bear, called the Pointers, are in a direction nearly north-east from Castor and Pollux, but at a considerable distance; they direct the eye to a star of the second magnitude, in Ursa Minor, at a considerable distance towards the west, called Abruccabah, or the Pole-star.

Having pointed out these leading stars and constellations, to serve as so many known points in the heavens, the attention might be directed, on a subsequent evening, about six o'clock, to the apparent motions of these bodies, and of the whole celestial sphere. On the evening of January 16th, at six o'clock, the star Procyon will be seen nearly due east, a very little above the horizon; Aldebaran, in an easterly direction, nearly halfway between the meridian and the eastern horizon; Rigel, towards the south-east, a little above the horizon; and Lyra, in the north-west, about 15 degrees above the horizon. Having marked the terrestrial objects which appear in the direction of these stars, they may be viewed, from the same station, about two hours afterwards, when Procyon will be found to have risen a considerable way above the horizon; Rigel, to have moved nearly 30 degrees to the westward; and Aldebaran, to have arrived near the meridian; while Lyra has descended within two or three degrees of the horizon; and Sirius, which was before under the horizon, is elevated about ten degrees above it. At ten o'clock, the same evening, Rigel and Aldebaran will be seen at a considerable distance westward of the meridian; Sirius, within 6 or 7 degrees of it; the star Lyra, near the northern horizon; and the constellation Orion, which in the first observation appeared in the direction south-eastby-east, will be found to have moved to the westward of the meridian. By such observations, it may be shown that the whole starry firmament has an apparent diurnal motion from east to west. While pointing out these apparent motions to the young, it will be proper to direct their attention to the polestar, which, to a common observer, never appears to shift its position. They may likewise be directed to hotice that the stars near the pole appear to move slower, and to describe smaller circles than those at a greater distance from it-that those which rise near the south describe smaller arcs than those which rise farther to the north-that the stars which rise due east, set due west, after an interval of twelve hours-that the stars which rise in the north-east, after describing a large arc of the heavens, set in

An idea of the general motion of the stars may be acquired by a simpler process than what we have now described. Let any observer bring a star, in any position between the zenith and southern horizon, into an apparent contact with a tree, spire, or chimney-top, and, in the course of fifteen or twenty minutes, he will perceive that that star and others adjacent to it have moved a little space from east to west. But the observations alluded to above are calculated to give a more satisfactory idea of this motion, and to make a deeper impression on the minds of the young.

The next series of observations might be those which demonstrate the apparent annual motion of the sun. For the purpose of exhibiting this motion, the Pleiades, or seven stars, along with Aldebaran, might be selected as fixed points in the heavens to indicate the progressive motion of the solar orb towards the east. About the middle of January, at eight o'clock in the evening, the Pleiades will be seen on the meridian; which observation should be noted down, for the purpose of being compared with a future observation. On the 1st of March, at the same hour, these stars will be seen nearly halfway between the meridian and the western horizon, while all the other stars, at the same declination, will be found to have made a similar progress.-About the 15th April they will be seen, at the same hour, very near the western horizon; and every day after this, they will appear to make a nearer approach to that part of the heavens in which the sun appears, till, being overpowered by the splendor of his rays, they cease to be visible. From these and similar observations, it will be easy to make the young perceive, that the sun has an apparent motion from west to east, through the circle of the heavens, and that the revolution is completed in the course of a year.

They may next be taught to acquire a definite idea of the measures by which the apparent distances of objects in the heavens are expressed. To talk to the young, as some are in the practice of doing, of two stars being a foot, a yard, or two yards asunder, is altogether vague and indefinite, unless we are told, at the same time, at what distance the yard or foot is supposed to be placed from our eye. As astronomers divide the circumference of the celes tial sphere into 360 parts or degrees, they may be told, that from any part of the horizon to the zenith are 90 degrees, and, consequently, that from the eastern to the western, or from the northern to the southern points of the horizon, are 180 degrees.And, in order that they may have a definite idea, or something approximating to it, of the extent of a degree, they may be told that the breadth of the moon is about half a degree-that the space occu pied by the three stars in a straight line in the belt of Orion-sometimes distinguished by the name of the Three Kings, or the Ell and Yard-is exactly 3 degrees in length, and, consequently, the distance between any two of them is a degree and a halfthat the distance between Castor and Pollux is near

ly 5 degrees--between Dubbe and Merah, the two by a socket, on the top of the pillar which supports Pointers, in the Great Bear, is 5 degrees; and that the ball representing the Earth, and let this wire rest the space between Dubbe, ot the northernmost on a slit or fork fixed to the top of the pillar which pointer, and the pole-star, is about 29 degrees. By supports the ball representing Mercury. When the familiarizing the mind with such measures, the machine is set in motion, the wire will point out on young will soon acquire a tolerable idea of the dis- the Zodiac the apparent motions of Mercury as tance of any two objects in the heavens, when the seen from the earth. When he passes from his number of degrees is mentioned. greatest elongation westward to the superior conjunction and to his greatest elongation eastward, the wire will move eastward according to the order of the signs. About its greatest elongation, it will ap pear stationary, and immediately afterwards will move westward, or contrary to the order of the signs, till it arrive at the western elongation, when it will again appear stationary ;-so that the pupil will plainly perceive that the direct and retrograde motions of the planets as seen from the earth, are in perfect accordance with a regular circular motion around the sun as a centre; and that such apparently irregular movements arise from the motion of the earth, and the different velocities of the planets, when compared with it,-just as the objects around us appear to move in different directions, and with different velocities, when we are sailing along a serpentine river in a steam-boat.

All the observations above stated may be made, in the way of an amusement, previous to the time when the pupils are expected to enter on the regular study of astronomy. They may be completed in the course of ten or twelve observations, made at different times, within the space of seven or eight months. They are intended for the purpose of stimulating the young to habits of observation and attention to the appearances of nature around them; so that, in every clear sky, they may learn to make similar observations by themselves, for confirming and amplifying their former views of the motions and aspects of the heavens. Such observations form the groundwork of astronomy, and of all the instructions they may afterwards receive in relation to this science, although they are generally neglected.— When problems on the celestial globe are prescribed, and vague descriptions of the planetary system given, previous to having made these observations, the sub-that the earth is a moving body, should next be preject is seldom understood, and no clear or expansive conceptions formed by the young, of the motions, phenomena, and relations of the great bodies of the universe. It may not be necessary, in the first instance, while making these observations, to attempt any explanation of the phenomena, but merely to impress upon the mind a clear conception of the apparent motions, and relative aspects, of the celestial orbs, as they present themselves to an attentive spectator; leaving the pupil to ruminate upon them till it shall be judged proper to direct his attention to the investigation of the true causes of celestial phenomena.

The arguments or considerations which prove sented to the attention, and illustrated in the most simple and familiar manner of which the subject will admit. The pupil will easily be made to perceive, that, if the earth is at rest, the whole frame of the material universe must move round it every twenty-four hours;-not only the fixed stars, but the sun and moon, the planets and their statellites, and every comet which traverses the firmament, must participate in this motion, while, at the same time, they are moving in another and an opposite course peculiar to themselves. He will perceive, that, in proportion as these bodies are distant from the earth, in a similar proportion will be the velocity with which they perform their diurnal revolutions

The pupil's attention might next he directed to the motions of the planets and the general pheno--that the sun behoved to move five hundred and mena of the solar system. When any of the planets are visible in the heavens, their positions in relation to the neighboring stars should be particularly noted, so that their apparent motions, whether direct or retrograde, may be clearly perceived, which, in most cases, will be quite perceptible in the course of a few weeks or months. The direct, stationary, and retrograde movements of Mars and Venus should be particularly attended to, for the purpose of afterwards demonstrating that the annual motion of the earth accounts for the apparently irregular and complicated motions of the planetary orbs. Large diagrams, representing the apparent motions of Mars, Mercury, and Venus, as seen from the earth during the course of several revolutions, with all the apparently irregular loops and curves they appear to describe should be laid before the pupil for his particular inspection, in order that he may perceive the improbability that such motions are real, or that an Infinitely Wise Being, who is the Perfection of Order, would introduce such inextricable confusion into the motions of the most splendid of his works. A common planetarium, which shows, by wheelwork, the relative motions of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, may be easily made to illustrate these motions, and to solve all their phenomena.Let a circle, two or three inches broad, and of such a diameter as to surround the planets, with a few stars marked on its inside to represent the Zodiac, be suspended on three pillars, so as to enclose the Earth, Mercury, and Venus. Let a wire be fixed

ninety-seven millions of miles every day, the nearest fixed star 125,000,000,000,000 of miles in the same time, or at the rate of fourteen hundred millions of miles every second, and the most distant stars with a velocity which neither words can express, nor imagination conceive,—and that such motions, if they actually existed, would, in all probability, shatter the whole material frame of the universe to atoms. He may be directed to consider, that such rapid velocities (if they could be supposed to exist) are not the motions of mere points or small luminous balls, but the motions of immense globes, many thousands of times larger than the earth-that a hundred millions of such globes are visible from our abode, besides the myriads that may be hid from human view in the unexplored regions of spaceand that it is impossible to conceive how all these innumerable globes, of different magnitudes, at different distances, and moving with different veloci ties, could be so adjusted as to finish their diurnal revolutions at the same moment, while many of them are at the same time impelled by other forces in a contrary direction. He may be reminded that the Creator, who formed the universe, is possessed of INFINITE WISDOM-that wisdom consists in proportionating means to ends, or in selecting the most appropriate arrangements in order to accomplish an important purpose-that to make the whole frame of Universal Nature move round the earth every day, merely, to produce the alternate succession of day and night, is repugnant to every idea we ought to entertain of the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Divine Mind, since the same effect can be produced by a simple rotation of the earth in twenty-four hours; and since we find that Jupiter and Saturn,