minded children (écoles gardiennes). In some cities and villages savings banks are connected with the schools. A number of blind asylums, deaf-mute schools, and institutions for imbeciles attend to the physically abnormal; other institutions of refuge and reformatories attend to the morally neglected and depraved youth. Music schools are found in Zürich, Winterthur, Berne, Luzerne, Schaffhausen, Aarau, and Lausanne. Well-managed school gardens are maintained in the cities of Berne, in Langnau, and Feldbach (Zürich), in Pratteln (Baselland), in Lichtensteig and Buchs (St. Gall) and in Lustorf (Thurgau.

E. TEACHERS.

Teachers are licensed by the cantonal governments. Licenses are granted only if the required proof of moral character is furnished and a certain age has been reached. A cantonal examination of the candidate's scholarship is generally required, except in a few cantons where the certificate of graduation from a normal school is accepted in lieu of an examination.

The teachers of advanced elementary schools are required to pass an additional examination. In recent years the license to teach female handiwork is made dependent upon attendance on a special course of preparation and an examination.

Throughout the greater part of Switzerland women find employment in the primary school, but their remuneration is, as a rule, smaller than that of men. In advanced (or grammar) schools women are employed as class teachers only in the cantons of Berne, Luzern, Schwyz, Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Freiburg, Baselstadt, Baselland, St. Gall, Tessin, Wallis, Neuenburg, and Geneva.

It is interesting to note the percentages of women teachers in the different cantons:

This table was prepared by Mr. C. Grob in 1881.

statistics of 1891 from other sources reveals the fact

A comparison with

that the average

has since risen to 33-3 per cent, though the cantons of Schaffhausen and Appenzell a. Rh. have entirely abandoned the practice of employing women as teachers in elementary schools.

The regular training of teachers is given in secondary schools in the cantons of Neuenburg, Geneva, and Basel, while in all other cantons special normal schools are established for that purpose, but in Graubünden and Solothurn these normal schools are departments of the cantonal central school. Only one normal school is open to both sexes. Switzerland has 37 normal schools altogether. Of these 23 are open exclusively to men, 13 only to women, and 1 to both sexes. Of the 37 Swiss normal schools, 22 are German, 13 French, and 2 Italian. The cantons or states maintain 25 of these schools; 4 are maintained by communities; 8 are private institutions. For further statistics see p.

172.

In some cantons the definite appointment of a teacher is preceded by a period of probation of two years. The appointment of teachers is decided by general election or by a school board, or, as in Geneva, by the city council. Usually the teacher is elected for life. In some cantons the right to call for a teachers' resignation is reserved. In a few cantons the teachers are elected or appointed for a definite number of years (three to eight). Reëlection is permissible.

In Catholic cantons certain ecclesiastical positions are connected with educational work in advanced elementary schools.

As a rule, the teacher is by law and contract obliged to give instruction a certain number of hours per week, to attend certain courses of instruction for his own benefit, to become a member of an aid society in order to secure a pension for himself, widow, and orphans. He is also obliged to arrange continuation and evening schools for boys and girls past school age, and not infrequently the care of the school building devolves upon him. Occupations that would interfere with his vocation are prohibited. He is free from certain duties that other citizens have to perform, as for instance, watch duty, statute service. In Wallis the teacher is exempted from income taxes. These privileges give him a high position in the community.

Salaries. The teachers' salaries are higher in advanced elementary (or grammar) than in primary schools. They vary considerably in the different cantons. Some cantons have no legally fixed minimum salary. The following table was compiled in 1881; later information is wanting: The minimum salary of primary teachers is below 1,000 francs ($200) in the cantons, Wallis, 187 franes; Nidwalden, 448; Uri, 451; Tessin, 572; Obwalden, 597; Graubünden, 669; Schwyz, 758; Zug, 778; Appenzell i. Rh. 882; Freiburg, 898.

The minimum varies between 1,000 and 1,500 francs in the cantons, Aargau, 1,207 francs; Berne, 1,249; Luzern, 1,289; Solothurn, 1,283; Neuenburg, 1,356; Baselland, 1,446.

The minimum varies between 1,500 and 2,000 francs in the cantons: Vaud, 1,514 franes; Thurgau, 1,552; St. Gall, 1,554; Glarus, 1,610; Schaffhausen, 1,623; Geneva, 1,647; Appenzell a. Rh., 1,821.

In Zürich and Baselstadt it exceeds 2,000 francs, to wit: Zürich, 2,192; Baselstadt, 2,778.

It is plain, though, that these figures are only of relative value, since they do not represent the actual salaries paid, but only the lowest. Switzerland has 23 pension funds and aid societies for teachers, widows, and orphans. Most cantons provide for pensions; others only aid the voluntary pension funds of the teachers, but all recognize the duty of the state to pension teachers after a certain number of years, which varies between 30 and 45 years.

F.-STATISTICS.

A. PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The number of school districts in 1891 was 3,817 with 8,239 schools. The number of pupils in 1891 was 467,596 (234,618 boys and 232,978 girls). The number of teachers was 9,332 (6,224 men and 3,108 women). In 1891 the number of pupils to one teacher was 50. The average attendance in 1890-'91 was 84.97 per cent (an improvement of 4.05 per cent over 1881). These and the following numbers do not include private schools.

B.—ADVANCED ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

The number of pupils in 1891 in 477 schools was 28,537 (16,346 boys and 12,191 girls). Teachers, 1,370 (1,178 men and 192 women).

C.-CONTINUATION SCHOOLS.

The number of pupils in 1891 was 40,575 (37,292 boys, 3,283 girls). In these schools recruits prepare for entering the army by reviewing their elementary studies.

D.-SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

The number of secondary and technical (such as normal) schools is not stated, but the number of students in 1891 was 19,299, nearly all boys.

E.—HIGHER EDUCATION.

In the universities and the federal polytechnicum the number of students in 1891 was 3,073, (2,847 young men and 226 young ladies).

Dr. Huber, an educational authority in Switzerland, having access to reports of private schools, makes this statement, which certainly comes nearer the true figures than the total of the foregoing.

The total number of pupils in elementary schools in 1891 was 549,067, to wit:

CHAPTER VIII.

THE RESULTS OF HOME TRAINING AND INFLUENCE.

(From the German of Franz Schöberle, Vienna.)

[The following presentation may seem very fragmentary and the figures too inadequate for use as a basis for generalizations such as the author indulges in. The inquiries may have, in some cases, resulted in erroneous statements. The facts themselves may be considered dubious; at least the place in which they are gathered (the city of Vienna) may not be the proper standard of comparison for other localities. The grouping of facts may be defective, inasmuch as it is done by what the author himself considers social standards-not by any standard generally agreed upon. In many cases potent educational influences may have escaped the author's observation; hence his conclusions may be faulty. Yet, after making all due allowances, after admitting all this and more, there remains a residue of suggestive thought in the little table, the author or compiler of which was a man who, for several years, patiently plodded in the service of science without hope of reward, except such as warm-hearted appreciation can offer.

The author presents only the first table, which shows each item as compared with the sum total of all cases observed. Two more tables are inserted, showing the same items, first, compared with the sum of each column; secondly, compared with the sum of each line. In other words, inquiry has been made into the relation one number bears to the total number of the social class of which it forms a part, and then into the relation the same number bears to the total number of children under similar educational influences.-The Translator.]

TABLE 1.—Classification of 9,000 Viennese school children, in different classes of society, according to their home training.

TABLE 2.-Ratio of the several items to the sum of the column.

TABLE 3.-Ratio of the several items to the totals in the margin.

This table (table 1, the author's) is the result of five years' study and observation in three ward schools of the city of Vienna, Austria. The observations were made by a teacher in fifteen class rooms and embrace 9,000 children of various ages between 10 and 14 years. Both sexes were observed, but from the explanatory remarks of the author we see that it was chiefly boys whom he studied. A comparatively large portion of the children belong to the lower strata of society. Though the tables might speak for themselves the explanations of the author may be helpful.

Line a (horizontal) contains the number of children, grouped in three classes, whose parents try to educate them, consciously and with a purpose in view, according to ethical principles or maxims, as, for instance, simplicity in appearance, word, and action, respect for others, sense of order and law, honesty, truthfulness, and uprightness. These children possess ideals of right, are ambitious, but not at the expense of others, and they are generally trained well in obedience and imbued with the sense of firmness and justice.

Line b contains the number of children whose parents are chiefly passive in their duties toward education. All they do is confined to a prevention of degeneracy on the one hand and a development of those impulses and actions which are presupposed and implied by society. These groups represent the "mechanical virtues." It is the discipline of formalism that we find here.

Line c contains the number of children who are educated in a onesided manner; that is, some important factor of education is neglected. For instance, respect of one's own person or respect for others; or sense