China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 imperial roads, and though most of them are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried on over them, and by means of numerous canals and navigable rivers. It is stated that the most populous part of China is singularly well adapted for the establishment of a network of railways, and a first attempt to introduce them into the country was made by the construction of a short line from Shanghai to Woosung, forty miles in length. One-half of this line, from Shanghai to Kangwang, was opened for traffic June 3, 1876, but closed again in 1877, after having been purchased by the Chinese authorities.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. OF CHINA IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Envoy and Minister.-Kwoh Sung-tao, accredited December 1878.
Secretary. Dr. Halliday Macartney.

2. OF GREAT BRITAIN IN CHINA.

Envoy, Minister, and Chief Superintendent of British Trade.-Sir Thomas
Francis Wade, K.C.B., appointed July 22, 1871.
Secretaries.-Hugh Fraser; Ralph Milbanke.

Chinese Secretary.-H. P. McClatchie.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures, in ordinary use at the treaty ports, and in the intercourse with foreigners, are as follows::

MONEY.

The Haikwan Tael=10 Mace=100 Candareens = 1,000 Cash Average rate of

exchange, 68.

There are no national gold and silver coins in China, and foreign coins are looked upon but as bullion, and usually taken by weight.

In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China, the Chih of 14 English inches has been adopted as the legal standard. It is the only authorised measure of length at all the ports of trade, and its use is gradually spreading all over the empire.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning China.

1. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Returns of Trade at the Treaty Ports in China for the year 1876. Part I. Abstracts of Trade and Customs Revenue Statistics, from 1864 to 1876. Pp. 27. Part II. Statistics of the Trade at each Port. 4. Shanghai, 1877. Correspondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty of Tientsin. Presented to the House of Commons. 4. London, 1871.

Report of Mr. Frederick F. Low, Minister-Resident of the United States, on 'China: its Social and Political Organisation; its Relation with the People and Governments of other Nations, and its possible Future;' dated Peking, Jan. 10, 1871; in Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States.' 8. Washington, 1871.

Report of Mr. George F. Seward, Consul-General of the United States, on the Religious, Educational, and Moral State of the Chinese People,' dated Shanghai, August 22, 1871; in 'Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States.' 8. Washington, 1872.

Report of the Delegates of the Shanghae Chamber of Commerce on the Trade of the Upper Yangtsze river. Presented to Parliament. Fol. London, 1870.

Report by Mr. Mallet, British Secretary of Legation, upon the Fluctuations of the Foreign Trade of China between the years 1864 and 1871. Presented to Parliament. 8. London, 1873.

Returns relative to Trade with China. (Reports from British Consuls at thirteen of the Treaty Ports.) 8. London, 1873.

Report by Mr. Arthur Nicolson, British Secretary of Legation, on the opium trade in China, dated Peking February 25, 1878, in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secre taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.

Trade of Great Britain with China; in Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1877.' Imp. 4. London, 1878.

2. NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Anderson (John), Mandalay to Momien: a Narrative of the two expeditions to Western China of 1868 and 1875 with Colonels E. B. Sladen and Horace Browne. 8. London, 1876.

Bastian (Dr. A.), Die Völker des Oestlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71. Carné (L. de), Voyage en Indo-Chine et dans l'empire chinois. 18. Paris, 1872.

Chinese Topography, being an Alphabetical List of the Provinces, Departments, and Districts in the Chinese Empire, with their Latitudes and Longitudes. Canton, 1844. Reprinted in 1864.

Courcy (Marquis de), L'Empire du milieu; description géographique, précis historique, institutions sociales, religieuses, politiques, notions sur les sciences, les arts, l'industrie et le commerce. 8. Paris, 1867.

David (Abbé A.), Journal de mon troisième voyage d'exploration dans l'empire chinois. 2 vols. 18. Paris, 1875.

Davis (Sir John F.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857.

Dennys (N. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan: a Complete Guide to the Open Ports of those Countries; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hongkong, and Macao. 8. London, 1867.

Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Commercial Relations of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1872.

Edkins (Joseph, D.D.), Religion in China, containing an Account of the three Religions of the Chinese. 8. London, 1877.

Ferrari (Joseph), La Chine et l'Europe. 8. Paris, 1867.

Fontpertuis (Ad. Frout de), La Chine et le Japon et l'Exposition de 1878. 8. Paris, 1878.

Gray (Ven. John Henry), China: a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the People. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877.

Gützlaff (C. F. A.), China Opened; or a Display of the Topography, History, Arts, Commerce, &c. of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. London, 1838.

Hanspach (Rev. A.), Report for the Years 1863 and 1864 of the Chinese Vernacular Schools, established in the Sinon, Kiushen, Fayuen, and Chonglok districts of the Quangtung province. 8. Hongkong, 1865.

Hư (L'Abbé E. R.), L'Empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862. Lauture (Comte d'Escayrac de), Mémoires sur la Chine: Gouvernement. Paris, 1864.

4.

Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870.

Macdonald (James), The China Question. 8. London, 1870. Martin (Dr.), Sur la statistique relative au dénombrement de la population en Chine. In 'Bulletin de la Société de géographie de Paris.' 8. Paris, 1872. Martin (D.), L'Opium en Chine; étude statistique et morale. 8. Paris, 1872. Medhurst (W. H.), The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 8. London, 1872. Oliphant (Oscar), China; a popular history. 8. London, 1857.

Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of British Relations in China. 8. London, 1860.

Pallu (Lieutenant Léopold), Relation de l'Expédition de Chine en 1860, rédigée d'après les documents officiels, avec l'autorisation de M. le comte de Chasseloup-Laubat, Ministre de la Marine. 4. Paris, 1864.

Plath (N.), Ueber die lange Dauer und Entwicklung des Chinesischen Reichs. 8. München, 1861.

Richthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegründeter Studien. Vol. I. 4. Berlin, 1877.

Richthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and Nganhwei; and on Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871.

Sacharoff (T.), The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during the Four Thousand Years of its Historical Existence; or, the Rise and Fall of the Chinese Population. Translated into English by the Rev. W. Lobscheid. Also, the Chronology of the Chinese. 8. Hongkong, 1865.

Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustände im Süden und. Osten Asien's. 8. Stuttgart, 1871.

Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. 6. Paris, 1872.

Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to China viâ Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.

Speer (W.), The Oldest and the Newest Empire: China and the United States. 8. Hartford, U.S. 1870.

Thomson (J.), The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China. 8. London,

1875.

Wells (S. Williams), The Chinese Commercial Guide. 8. Hongkong, 1863. Werner (Reinhold), Die preussische Expedition nach China, Japan und Siam. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1863.

Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom: a survey of the geography, government, &c., of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. New York, 1848. Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With some account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.

HONG KONG.

Constitution and Government.

THE colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was ceded to Great Britain in January 1841; the cession was confirmed by the treaty of Nankin, in August 1842; and the charter bears date April 5, 1843. Hong Kong is mainly a factory for British commerce with China, and a military and naval station.

The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary, the officer commanding the troops, and the Attorney-General. There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor, and composed of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor-General, and four unofficial members nominated by the Crown.

Governor of Hong Kong.-Hon. John Pope Hennessy, C.M.G.; born 1834; studied law, and was called to the bar of the Inner Temple, London; M.P. for King's County, Ireland, 1859-65; Governor of Labuan, 1868-71; Governor of the West African Settlement, 1872-73; Governor of the Bahamas, 1873-75; Governor of the Windward Islands, 1875-76. Appointed Governor of Hong

Kong, November 10, 1876.

The Governor has a salary of 5,000l. per annum.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The occupation of Hong Kong at its outset was effected at considerable cost to Imperial funds, the vote from Parliament in the year 1845 being nearly 50,000l. in addition to military expenditure. The colony may be considered to have paid its local establishments in 1855, since which year it has held generally a surplus of revenue over and above its fixed expenditure. Hong Kong at present pays 20,000l. a-year to the British Government as military contribution. The public revenue and expenditure of the colony were as follows in each of the five years from 1872 to 1876:—

Above one-half of the public revenue of the colony is derived from land, taxes, and licences, and an opium monopoly, which together more than cover the expenses of administration. A large portion of the expenditure has to be devoted to the maintenance of a strong police force.

Hong Kong formerly had a small public debt, amounting to 15,6251. in 1867, but which became extinct in 1868.

Area and Population.

Hong Kong is one of a number of islands called by the Portuguese 'Ladrones,' or thieves, from the notorious habits of the old inhabitants. It is situated off the south-eastern coast of China, at the mouth of the Canton river, about 40 miles east of Macao. The whole of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge, stretching nearly east and west; its abrupt peaks rising to the height of 1,800 feet above the sea level. The length of the island is about 11 miles, its breadth from 2 to 5 miles, and its area rather more than 29 square miles. It is separated from the mainland of China by a narrow strait, known as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, which does not exceed half a mile in width. The opposite peninsula of Koo-loon was ceded to Great Britain by a treaty entered into in 1861 with the Government of China, and now forms part of Hong Kong.

The population of Hong Kong, including the military and naval establishments, was as follows at the last census, taken April 2, 1871: