case; generally something connects the force with the work, and then we say the force is applied 'indirect.' Have any of you ever seen a water-wheel? I see not many of you have. Well, here is a picture of a water-wheel and a flour-mill. What do you think is going on in that little house? Ans. Grinding corn. Yes; that is the work. Now what is the force employed here? Ans.-The force of that water coming down the mountain. But what gives the water this force you speak of? Ans.-Coming such a long way down the hill. Then if it did not come such a long way wouldn't it have so much force? Ans.-No, sir, Just explain what you mean. Ans. If you had the mill much higher up the mountain, just where the stream begins, there would be very little force, not enough to turn the wheel. Well? Ans. And if you took the mill nearer to the bottom of the mountain there would be ever so much more force. (A boy)Please, sir, that would be because there would be ever so much more water. How would there be more water? Ans. Because other streams would join it. (The previous boy)-What would be the use of having ever so much more water if it didn't run? you might have ever so much water at the top, but if it didn't run it would do nothing. Now, Jones, don't get angry let us try to get at the truth about it. You have said there is a force in the water; that the farther the water has run down the hill, and the more there is of it, the greater the force is. Let us think about this. (A boy holding up his hand.) Well? Ans. Please, sir, there is not any force in the water at all. Oh, indeed! then you disagree with all that has been said? Ans.-Yes, sir. It's the force of gravitation acting upon the water and making it come to the bottom: it's the weight of the water. (Another boy)—It is not only because there is more water at the bottom that makes it have more force. What makes you think that? Ans.-Because if there were only the same quantity of water running at the bottom as near the top, it would still have greater force. Why? Ans.-Because it has been running down a greater distance. (A boy)-Please, sir, in the last lesson you told us about a hoop running down a hill is this about water the same? But what did I tell you that the hoop running down a hill was an instance of? Ans.-Accelerated velocity. (A boy putting up his hand.) Well? Ans.-Can you have accelerated force? Yes, you can; and that is a very sensible question. But at present I shall say nothing about that we will go into the subject of accelerated force, as you call it, when we have a lesson upon 'momentum.' What is really the force which causes that water to run down the mountain? Ans.-The attraction of gravitation. Yes; that is the force which is applied to do the work of grinding the corn. Now suppose somebody had a spite against the man at the mill, and so went higher up the mountain, and placed a quantity of stones and earth in the bed of the stream, so as to block it up: what would happen? Answers The water-wheel would stop. The stream would not come to the mill. The miller would come out and see what was the matter. And what would he find was the matter? Ans. That the force had stopped. Indeed! what force? Ans.-The force of the water. But what have we just said that really was? Ans.-The force of gravitation. Then do you mean to say that the force of gravitation had stopped acting? Ans.-No, sir: it is still acting. Upon what? Ans. Upon the water on the other side of the stones. Now I want you to think carefully. Tell me what is the difference between the action of this force now that the stream is blocked up, and before, when it caused the water to turn the mill. (A pause, during which every boy is thinking. Surely a moment of delight in the life of a teacher, whose own psychic force is reflected from every eye.) Answers-The force is acting, but it is not grinding the corn. Before, the force did work now it does nothing. There is more and more force getting in the water on the other side of the wall. (A boy raises his hand.) Well? Ans.— If the stones and things were knocked away, and all the water came rushing down, it would do more work than it did before. You think it would? Yes, sir : it would make the wheel go round very fast. (Another boy)—I don't think it would do any work at all: it would wash the mill and the wheel all down to the bottom of the hill. Very well; now I will take one or two of your answers, and see what we can make of them. It was you, Johnson, I think, who said there was more and more force getting in the water on the other side of the stones: what makes you think so? Ans. Because the water is getting higher and higher. (A boy)-The man must keep on bringing more and more stones. Why? Ans.-If he did not, the water would soon have power enough to break down the wall altogether. How did the water get this power that you speak of? Ans.-By the force of gravitation. Now what word would you use when speaking of more and more things collected together, such, for instance, as more and more stones? Ans.-A heap; an accumulation; a collection. Just so. Now what is there an accumulation of in the mass of water? Ans.Force. And what is force able to accomplish? Ans. -Work. I will now write on the board a name for such an accumulation of force, or such a store of power to do work-'Energy;' and this is its meaning, 'power to do work.' (A boy)-Please, sir, is it called 'energy' when it does work? Ans.-Yes, certainly. (Same boy)-Then energy is the same as force. (Another boy)-No; it is not the same: energy is a lot of force that has been stored up, and then all coming out. (A boy)-It is energy before it does come out. The fact is we want words to describe all this. It is not quite right to talk about energy coming out;' still you have, I think, the correct idea. If the energy exists, but is not in operation, like the energy in the mass of water still on the other side of the wall, we say it, that is the water, has 'potential energy,' which I will write down on the board; but if we knock down the wall, and allow the energy to operate in performing work, we then say the energy is 'actual.' Now, boys, our lesson has been rather a long one. Just take out your exercise-books and write these definitions :-Force is that which produces or tends to produce motion, or changes or stops motion. Work is the result of the application of force. Machinery is the apparatus for conveniently connecting, and passing on, the force applied with or to the work to be done. Energy is the power to perform work, stored-up force. If the energy is in operation it is termed 'actual energy:' if it exists, but is not in operation, it is called 'potential energy.' 6 250 T21 50 2. A clerk having to pay 1000 workmen 1 5s. 4d. each, receives from his employer £1000 for this purpose, and this, together with £9 18s. 6d. of his own, he expends in paying each man in full as far as the money goes; how many men remain unpaid? (a) Number of men paid=(£1009 18s. 6d. ÷ 1 5s. 4}d.)= 484764 halfd.÷609 halid.=796 men. (b). 1000-796 or 204 men remain unpaid. Ans. Take off I ro. 5 5 5 56666 14 71 I po. =,, 20 po. 5 34 .. exact val. of estate=456666 9 33 Grammar. = I. Parse the verbs and adjectives in the following :'Toll for the brave! The brave that are no more ; All sunk beneath the wave Fast by their native shore.' Toll-reg. trans. verb (used here as intrans.) imper., pres., 2nd per. plur., agreeing with (you). brave-adj. qual. (men) here equal to a noun. brave-adj. qual. (men), emphasizing first brave. are-irreg. subst. verb am, was, been, indic., pres., 3rd pers. plur., agreeing with that. sunk-complete part. of irreg. intrans. verb sink, sank, sunk referring to all. their poss. adj. limiting shore. native-disting. adj. limiting shore. 2. Define clearly an abstract noun; give examples. An abstract noun' is the name of a quality considered apart from the thing with which it is connected, or of an action considered apart from the doer of that action, or of the state of any common or proper noun. That which is denoted by an abstract noun has no independent existence, but is only thought of by itself. Abstract nouns are formed from (1) adjectives; e.g., goodness, whiteness, fruitfulness. (2) Verbs, e.g., laughter, speech. (3) Concrete nouns, e.g., tyranny, boyhood. 3. Give examples (1) of nouns having two plurals; (2) of nouns that admit of no plural. (1) Some nouns of foreign extraction have both an English and a foreign plural, with different shades of meaning, e.g., genius, genii and geniuses; index, indexes, and indices; formula, formula, and formulas. Some A. S. words give two plurals:-brothers and brethren; cloths and clothes; dies and dice; pennies and pence. (2) Some nouns, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of a plural. These are names of materials, as, gold, silver, clay, timber; abstract nouns, as temperance, wisdom, compassion. Many of such nouns are used in the plural to denote different kinds or instances of the substances or qualities referred to. Geography. 1. Name in order the river mouths, bays, headlands, and principal seaports between the Firth of Clyde and the Bristol Channel. Describe briefly the character of each seaport. On the Firth of Clyde are the seaports of Greenock, with shipbuilding and sugar-refining, and Port Glasgow, with shipbuilding. Proceeding southwards, we pass Ardrossan, with steam to Ireland, Mouth of the Irvine, Ayr Bay, with Ayr at the Mouth of the Ayr, Turnberry Point, Girvan at the Mouth of the Girvan, Loch Ryan, Corsill Point, Portpatrick-steam to Ireland, 21 miles off-Mull of Galloway, at which point we enter the Solway Firth, parts of which are Luce Bay, Wigtown Bay, and Kirkcudbright Bay. Burrow Head lies between Luce and Wigtown Bays. The chief rivers entering the Solway are the Dee, the Nith, with its port of Dumfries, the Annan, and the Eden in Cumberland. Continuing south, along the English coast, we pass the coal ports of Maryport, Whitehaven, and Workington, round St. Bee's Head, reach Barrow-in-Furness, cross the mouth of Morecambe Bay, receiving the waters of the Lune, skirt the coast of Lancashire, on which stand Fleetwood, Blackpool, Preston at the mouth of the Ribble, and Liverpool and Birkenhead (in Cheshire), a combination-town forming the most wonderful example of seafaring enterprise in this or almost any country of the world. Crossing the Estuary of the Dee, we coast along Wales, past Great Orme's Head, through the Menai Straits, with Bangor, round the peninsula of Braich-y-pull into Cardigan Bay, a long stretch, at the south end of which are Strumble Head and St. David's Head. The peninsula of Pembroke is cut by St. Bride's Bay and Milford Haven, leaving which we pass St. Gowan's Point, enter Caermarthen Bay, and beyond Worms Head, we reach our destination, the Bristol Channel. 2. What differences of climate are there between the East and the West Coasts of Great Britain? Give reasons for these differences. The average fall of rain over Great Britain is much greater on the West than on the East coast, the average number of rainy days on the east being 165 and on the west 208. This great difference of climate between the east and west sides arises from the configuration of the land and the general prevalence of westerly winds, charged with vapour from the Atlantic. These winds, meeting with the cooler mountain ranges, lose their moisture and give rise to nearly all the principal rivers in the island. The barren hills on the West are almost continually shrouded in mist, while the districts beyond them receive only the proper amount of water. 3. Say what you know about the physical features and industrial pursuits of Cornwall, Durham, Ayrshire, and Galway. If you can, draw a map to illustrate one answer, and insert the lines of latitude and longitude. Cornwall has a rugged surface, an indifferent soil, and a scarcity of timber. Its climate is mild and healthy, but very moist. Its tin mines are the most celebrated in the world. The district richest in metals extends from Dartmoor in Devonshire to Land's End, but the most varied mineral wealth is confined to a little space in the southern end of the peninsula, to which place fully nine-tenths of the people have been drawn to follow the industries of tin and copper mining. Durham consists of moorlands with lead mines in the Pennine Chain; a tract of coal-measures in the middle; and a belt of agricultural soil on the coast, in the southern part of which saltmines are found. The three chief rivers rise close together in the W., and are the Tyne forming the N. boundary, the Tees the S., and the Wear running through its centre. The chief industries are coal and iron mining, the manufacture of glass, shipbuilding, salt-making, sail-cloth manufacture, and shipping. Ayrshire lies on the Firth of Clyde, and is separated from the basin of that river by a low range of hills on the N.E., while on the S.E. it is bounded by the hills stretching from the Lowthers to the Solway. It is crescent-shaped, and watered by five main streams, rising in the eastern hills, the chief of which is the Ayr, dividing the county into two parts. In the south lies Carrick, very hilly, thinly peopled, and chiefly devoted to pasture-land; to the N., is Cunningham, pastoral and rich in coal-measures; and between these is Kyle, the richest and most populous of the three parts, forming one of the centres of Scotch manufacturing industry. Kyle and Cunningham are thickly crowded with towns and villages, whose outward trade is carried on through the ports of the Clyde. Ayrshire has been called the dairy of Scotland, and gives name to a breed of cattle. Galway in general consists of an immense level plain, extending far inland, bounded by the Suck, the Shannon, and L. Derg. The smaller portion of the county is composed by a mass of heights, the Connemara Mts., running towards the sea along the shores of Galway Bay, and almost cut off from the level tract by Loughs Mask and Corrib. Th's rocky district is barren and deserted, and the few small towns lie in the river valleys of the plain. The chief industry is farming; the cattle fairs of Balinasloe being the most important in Ireland. Composition. Write from dictation the passage given out by the Inspector. 2. In the following sentence show that a preposition makes an intransitive verb transitive: Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee The verb laughed, which is generally intransitive, is rendered transitive by means of the preposition at. If it were said that 'they laughed' the action is confined to the actors, but the phrase they laughed at' requires an object to complete the meaning, which is supplied in all his jokes. To test if such combinations are true compound' or 'preposition-verbs,' as they are sometimes called, try if they make good sense in the passive form; as, His jokes were laughed at: This proves at to be virtually part of the verb laugh. 6 1. Draw a full map of Spain and Portugal. Insert the lines of latitude and longitude. 2. Trace minutely the course of the Loire, mentioning in order its tributaries and the towns in its basin, and describing the character of the country through which it flows. The Loire rises in the Cevennes, flows with a winding course towards the north as far as Nevers, near which it is joined by the Allier, a tributary which, rising in the same chain of mts., flows parallel with the Loire, from which it is separated by a range of hills. From Nevers the Loire proceeds to the northwest until it reaches Orleans, where it bends to the west and continues in this direction till it falls into the Bay of Biscay. In this part of its course it receives the Cher, Indre, and Vienne of the left, and the united Mayenne, Sarthe, and Loir on the right These are its principal feeders, but the branches received by the Loite are very many, and this river constitutes the great outlet for the produce of central and western France. The banks are celebrated for their beauty, particularly in the neighbourhood on Tours. The chief towns in its basin are Le Puy, St. Etienne, Nevers, Clermont, Moulins, Orleans, Tours, Limoges, Poictiers, Saumur, Alençon, Le Mans, Mayenne, Angers, and Nantes, A tone is the interval between two sounds, either higher or lower, and can be divided into two semitones. The natural scale has eight sounds, rising in successive steps by tones and semitones, the latter being found between the third and fourth, and seventh and eighth sounds. 2. What is a triad? Write in a, b, and c severally the triads of (C) Do, (F) Fa, and (G) Sol. |