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And," when used, as in these sentences in their original form, to connect "which" or "who" with its antecedent, really separates the two: e. g., "Bucephalus and which Alexander rode was a fine animal." To give "which an+ antecedent we must remove “and”: e. g., "Bucephalus, which (or, Bucephalus, the horse which) Alexander rode, was a fine animal."

The incorrectness in the last two sentences as originally written is removed by the excision of "and;" clearness is promoted by repeating the antecedent in a condensed form.

I.

We were ushered into a gallery which was one hundred feet long, and which (or, gallery one hundred feet long which) occupied a great portion of the northern side of the castle.

II.

We were ushered into a gallery one hundred feet long, and which occupied a great portion of the northern side of the castle.

In the last example, it is necessary, in order to enable "and" to do its proper work as a connective, to insert

"which was" in the preceding clause. A better way of mending the sentence is to omit "and."

I.

(a) The Cotes family is an old and good one, which has long been established in Shropshire, and which has for years been returned to Parliament in the person of one of its members.

(b) The Cotes family is an old and good one, long established in Shropshire, and has for years been returned to Parliament in the person of one of its members.

(c) The Cotes family, long established in Shropshire, is an old and good one, which has for years been returned to Parliament in the person of one of its members.

II.

The Cotes family is an old and good one, long established in Shropshire, and which has for years been returned to Parliament in the person of one of its members.

In this example, in order to enable "and" to do its proper work as a connective, we may either (a) insert three words in the preceding clause, an addition which makes the sentence long and heavy; or we may (b) omit "which,” and thus enable "and" to connect "is an old and good one with "has for years been returned;" or we may (c) omit "and," and change the order so as to make "one" the direct antecedent of "which." It is obvious that, though in the three forms the meaning of the sentence as a whole remains the same, there is a change in the relative importance of the several facts mentioned.

I.

He tells the world of the star which he has discovered, and which he believes will guide the ship of state.

II.

He tells the world of the star he has discovered and which he believes will guide the ship of state.

In this sentence as originally written, "and" may be regarded as a connective between the expressed "which" and an omitted "which" in the preceding clause. Sentences of this class are much less objectionable than those cited above; but inexperienced writers should carefully avoid them.

I.

Sometimes they plunged into a labyrinth of lanes teeming with life, in which the dog-stealer and the pickpocket found a sympathetic multitude.

Discipline is needed to fit us for active life after our graduation, when we shall have no rules and masters to compel us to use our time to advantage.

II.

Sometimes they plunged into a labyrinth of lanes teeming with life and where the dog-stealer and the pick-pocket found a sympathetic multitude.

Discipline is needed to fit us for active life after our graduIation and when we shall have no rules and masters to compel us to use our time to advantage.

What has been said about "and which" applies with equal force to "and where," "and when," etc.

In translations from foreign languages and in original compositions, avoid constructions that are not in accordance with the English idiom.

Chapter III.

CLEARNESS

SECTION I.

IMPORTANCE OF CLEARNESS

If a writer wishes his readers to understand what he says, he should make his sentences mean to them what they mean to him. He should constantly bear in mind that, important as it is to have clear ideas and to express them in language which is clear to himself, it is no less important to express them in language which is clear to his readers. If his work is to be read by none but those who are thoroughly acquainted with the subject in hand, he may use technical terms in order to give precision to his statements; but if he is writing for the general public, he must (as has already been said1), even at the risk of being inaccurate, avoid expressions that, familiar as they may be to experts, are not in good use.

In these days, when readers are so many and leisure is so rare, a writer who wishes to be read must express himself so clearly that his meaning may be caught at once. Few readers have time or inclination to master unfamiliar words, to supply omissions in language, or to unravel tangled thoughts. If they do not get at the meaning of a sentence without trouble, the chances are that they will not get at it at all. A writer should therefore know what words a man of ordinary intelligence and acquirements is likely to understand, and what kind and degree of attention he may reasonably be expected to give.

1 See page 26.

Under these restrictions, a writer who wishes to be understood by his readers should strive to make his sentences as clear as is possible within the limitations imposed by the nature of language and by good use. He should (1) seek the words which exactly express his meaning, should (2) use as many words as are needed to convey his meaning easily and fully but not one word more, and should (3) arrange words and clauses in the order in which they may most readily be understood in themselves and in their relations with one another.

To make sure that "its scholars means the scholars in the Blankville boarding-school, the reader has to go back

to the preceding sentence.

Obscurity is sometimes caused by pronouns which stand for no word or group of words in the sentence.