doctrine) between the corporeal and incorporeal, and the means by which the spiritual world brings the material under its dominion.

The Soul of Man and the World-Soul.-Spirit (soul) in man originated neither ex traduce nor by special creation when the body was formed, but from a previous state of existence, and is therefore immortal. It passes through three definite stages of development, a terrestrial, an aërial, and an ethereal. While in the material body the soul has its seat in the fourth ventricle of the brain, where it may have the best possible communication with all parts of the brain. The soul of the world is a spirit "without sense and animadversion ;" it pervades the "whole matter of the universe," producing such "phenomena as cannot be resolved into mere mechanical power." Evidence of the fact of the world-soul appears in gravity, which must be conceived as the effect of some "immaterial cause directing the motions of ethereal particles to act upon those grosser bodies to drive them towards the earth."

Morality. Morality is the art of living well or happily. The essential condition of morality is freedom of the will. The freedom of the will we know directly:

we know it, sometimes, only too well, since we frequently do not do the good which we know we ought to do. There cannot possibly be a contradiction between divine prescience and freedom of the will, since contradiction cannot at all come within the sphere of divine omniscience. We know the good by a faculty which perceives instinctively and with absolute certainty its object, and delights in it alone, viz., the "boniform faculty." This faculty in us is a "sense" corresponding to Tò ayaóv in the Deity. It is the most truly divine faculty in our souls, the image of the "divine sagacity," which in God is superior even to reason. The perception of this faculty consists in a living sense of its object, and not a merely formal apprehension of it. The characteristic fruit of the faculty is

love of God and one's neighbor. The passions of men are not necessarily evil, but may be servants of the notion of virtue. They may be compared to the winds, which purify the material atmosphere. The seat of the passions is the plastic nature (which occupies the heart). The fundamental passions are those of admiration, love, and hate. Love towards future good is desire; love exulting in the presence of the good is joy; etc. The primary virtues are prudence, sincerity, and patience. Derivative are justice, courage, and temperance. Subordinate are the virtues of liberality, gratitude, veracity, candor, urbanity, fidelity. "All virtue is summed up in 'intellectual love,' or love of the highest good. Just as numbers spring from unity and may be measured by it, so intellectual love, as a single and simple principle, is the source and rule of the diverse forms of good."

§ 58.

Richard Cumberland (1632-1718). - Cumberland was a graduate and fellow of Cambridge, and was rector at Brampton and Stamford, chaplain to the Lord Keeper of the Seals, and Bishop of Peterborough. His only philosophical work appears to have been "De Legibus Disquisitio Philosophica in qua earum Forma, summa Capita, Ordo, Promulgatio, et Obligatio e Rerum Natura investigantur; quin etiam Elementa Philosophiæ Hobbianæ, cum Moralis tum Civilis, considerantur et regulantur" (1692).

Philosophy. Cumberland undertakes, in common with More and Cudworth, to vindicate the notion.of a natural and immutable foundation of morality against the mechanico-sensational and individualistic theory of Hobbes. He rejects the Platonistic doctrine of knowledge upon which the Cambridge philosophers had based their ethical doctrine, and maintains a theory not unlike (indeed) that of Hobbes himself: he will as far as possible deduce the laws of morality by a geometrical method from a single fundamental principle. This principle is, the law of bene

VOL. I.-9

volence towards all rational beings, — including even God. This law has its foundation in the fact that since everything has a definite place in the entire world of things, and is so framed as to continue in that place and preserve its nature, human nature, or rational nature in general, is a certain end in itself to itself. An a posteriori proof of this law of nature is found in the fact of man's natural aptitude for social virtues or a common life with others. This aptitude appears in the possession of reason, of power of comparison and of perception of analogies, of speech, of efficiency of hand, of organs for the propagation of the human species, etc. This law has as sanction happiness and unhappiness, which common experience and the consensus gentium show to be consequent upon observance and violation of it. This sanction is one affixed by the divine will to the law, though the happiness consequent upon observance and the unhappiness consequent upon violation follow from human nature as well as from the divine will. Benevolence is good, however, apart from its connection with happiness. It promotes the common good that it does so is (says Cumberland) as certain as that a moving point generates a line. The limited nature of our physical powers makes it necessary that, in the observance of the primary law of morality, we (1) distinguish between things within our reach and things not so, and (2) limit our benevolence as regards persons, times, places, etc. Since the whole depends upon its parts, a corollary of the law of benevolence is an individual right of property. After benevolence, the chief moral virtue is justice, which embraces liberality, courtesy, and domestic affection. All government and political authority have their foundation in the idea of benevolence.1

2

$ 59.

John Locke (1632-1704). — Locke, who was the son of 1 See Hallam's Literature of Europe, Part IV.

2 Locke's works; "Life of Locke," by H. R. Fox-Bourne ;

a Puritan attorney and small landowner of Somersetshire, attended, between the ages of fourteen and twenty, the Westminster Grammar School, at the head of which was a Dr. Busby, famous as a flogger of schoolboys. The impressions received by him there were of lasting consequence: he always afterwards had a hatred of mere scholasticality in thinking, which constituted a prime motiveforce in his philosophizing. He entered Oxford University in 1652, and remained connected with that institution, as student, tutor, fellow, or honorary student, for many years. He was not, as an undergraduate, specially studious: he was repelled at Oxford, as at Westminster, by outworn Scholasticism. He was, however, a busy reader. The reading of Descartes, who greatly delighted if he did not completely satisfy him, gave him his first stimulus to philosophical reflection. Some thought of making divinity his profession was dispelled by the certainty that if he did so he would be obliged to surrender all real conviction; and he chose the study and practice of medicine. He fell into the society of men interested in physical research, and was elected member of the Royal Society of London. 1665 he accompanied Sir Walter Vane as secretary on an embassy to Germany. In 1667 he became private secretary to the statesman, or politician, Lord Ashley. During Ashley's term as minister he received appointments as Secretary of Presentations, and of the Board of Trade. In 1675 (after Ashley's dismissal from office), Locke went to France on account of ill-health. He there had the society of men of intellectual eminence. He returned to England in 1679 to become again secretary and counsellor of Ashley, with whom he remained till the latter's flight to Holland four years later. Locke fled to Holland, and was for six years a (political) exile. In Holland his time was largely occupied with the preparation of his great "Essay," begun

In

"Locke," by Thomas Fowler ("English Men of Letters "); Green's "Introduction to Hume; "Conduct of the Understanding," ed. by Fowler; "Locke," by Fraser (Blackwood Series).

fifteen years previously. He had the pleasure and advantage of social and intellectual intercourse with the Dutch theological liberals. Locke returned to England when the new political order began, and took an active part during the remainder of his life in the work of establishing firmly the quasi-republican form of government under the reign of William of Orange. Ill-health necessitated his declining the offer of certain positions of great honor and responsibility; but he did accept the office of Secretary of Trades and Plantations, and acted as a personal adviser of the chief republican statesmen about him. His published works, dealing with burning questions of his day, brought upon him many controversial tasks, which he always performed vigorously and effectively. In the scientific, religious, and political life of his age he was one of the most active and useful of men. Few philosophers, if any, in any age, have, indeed, been practically so efficient as Locke. His private life and character seem to have been most estimable.

Works. Locke's chief philosophical works are: "Essay Concerning Human Understanding," first published in 1690, and enlarged twice or thrice within the following decade, the sixth edition being the fullest; "Thoughts Concerning Education" (1693); "The Conduct of the Understanding" (posthumuously published); "Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1689); Three "Letters" (1697-1699) to the Bishop of Worcester (Edward Stillingfleet).

Philosophy. I. Human Understanding. Introduction : Scope, Value, and Method of the Proposed Investigation. Locke proposes in his chief philosophical undertaking, concerning human understanding, to inquire into the “original [origin] of those ideas, notions, or whatever else one may please to call them, which a man observes and is conscious to himself he has in his mind; the ways whereby the understanding comes to be furnished with them; what knowledge the understanding hath by those ideas, and the certainty, evidence, and extent of it; the nature and grounds of faith or opinion [or the assent which we give to any