history of the sciences, in the history of the individual mind, in the theoretical considerations that the mind feels a necessity, in dealing with numerous and complex data, of having some theory by which to connect them; that it could in the beginning have only such a degree of intelligence as the theoretical conception of things in general embodies; that the theological view would naturally stimulate inquiry, and lead on to the metaphysical (which is merely transitional), and thence to the positive. The positive view, then, is the scientifically true view; Positive Philosophy, the true philosophy.

Characteristics and Problem of Positive Philosophy.Positive philosophy has three general characteristics: (1) it regards all phenomena as subject to invariable natural law; (2) it attempts accurately to discover these laws, with a view of reducing them to the smallest number possible; (3) it rejects speculation about origin and purpose, and simply analyzes accurately the circumstances of phenomena, connecting them by the natural relations of succession and resemblance. Every sort of knowledge reaches the positive stage. Every branch of knowledge becomes a part of positive philosophy as it acquires generality, simplicity, independence. Every branch must sooner or later acquire the positive character. Social phenomena, as being the most individual, the most complex, most dependent on others, are the latest to be brought within the positive sphere, sociology the latest branch of positive philosophy. The problems of positive philosophy are: (1) to establish a social physics (to bring sociology fully within. the sphere of the positive); (2) to form a system of the positive sciences. The former problem is primary; the latter, secondary.

Advantages of the Positive Philosophy. There are four advantages to accrue from the study of the positive philosophy: (1) the discovery by experiment of the laws which rule the intellect in the investigation of truth; (2) the regulation of education; (3) the promotion of

the progress of the special sciences; (4) the discovery basis of social reorganization. (1) Introspective psychology pursues a false, illusory method; the mind. cannot observe its own phenomena; emotion interferes with accurate observation; the method of introspection cuts off the phenomena of mind from their causes and effects. (2) Education is theological and metaphysical chiefly; it may be brought to the positive stage by positive philosophy. (3) The positive philosophy will supply general principles by which the sciences may receive new applications, as algebra and geometry did when generalized by Descartes. (4) Positive philosophy will do away with the existing social anarchy by doing away with the intellectual anarchy the existence of the three incompatible philosophies of which it is the consequence.

The Hierarchy of the Positive Sciences. Human effort is either theoretical or practical. We have to do here only with the former. Science, or theoretical effort, is

either abstract or concrete. The former have to do with laws, and are fundamental. With them alone is philosophy concerned. The order of science must be determined as nearly as possible according to the general principle that the simpler and more general come first, and the more complex and particular stand last. According to this principle we should have the sciences arranged in nearly the historical order of their perfection, as follows: Astronomy (geometrical and mechanical), Terrestrial Physics (embracing Physics properly so called and Chemistry) and Organic Physics (including Physiology and Social Physics). The principle which gives this order to the whole body of science arranges the parts of each science. The foregoing arrangement gives the sciences in the order of the perfection, the simpler and more precise possessing the higher degree of perfection. It also shows the order in which they must be studied, since no science can be "effectually pursued without the preparation of a competent knowledge of the anterior science on which it de

pends." (The advantage of all this for Pedagogy is obvious.) The positive method, though always fundamentally the same, receives different applications in the different sciences, and to be thoroughly understood must be studied in the different sciences. A variety of the methods applicable to one science cannot be transferred without modification to another science. Mathematics, omitted from the list of the sciences as given, is, and has been since the time of Descartes and Newton, the basis of the whole of Natural Philosophy, rather than a particular science. Regarded as a particular science, it would stand at the head of the list.

Sociology. We pass over entirely Comte's treatment of the first four of the five particular sciences which constitute the entire circle of sciences, and speak merely of the fifth, Sociology, a science of which he claimed to be the founder.1 Sociology, or the Science of Society, has two general conditions to consider; viz., those of order and progress in civilization, the two being necessarily inseparable aspects of one principle. It has accordingly the two general divisions, - Social Statics and Social Dynamics. The method of Sociology is the same as that of the other sciences, the method of combined induction and deduction. So far as it merely observes and collects facts peculiar to its sphere and draws from them empirical laws, it is inductive in its procedure; so far as dependent on the anterior sciences of Physiology, Chemistry, Physics, etc., it is deductive in its procedure. The empirical laws it arrives at by induction, must harmonize with the deductions from the principles drawn from anterior sciences. Social Statics has for its "object the positive study of the mutual action and reaction which all portions of the social system continually exercise upon each other." The elements it has to deal with are the

1 We may quote here a remark which occurs in Professor Huxley's "The Advance of Science in the Last Half Century," to the effect that Comte "had no adequate acquaintance with the physical sciences even of his own time." In this Comte reminds one of Bacon.

individual, the family, and society as such. The family was "originally the sole, and always the principal, source of the social feelings, and the only school open to mankind in general in which unselfishness can be learned, and the feelings and conduct demanded by social relations be made habitual.” Society is founded on a division of employment and a cooperation of human beings. This division and this co-operation require a wise supervision, which can be exercised only by Positive philosophers, in the capacity of authorized educators. Social Dynamics, which treats of the laws of the evolution of society, has for its fundamental law that of the "constant and indispensable succession" of the three general states theological, metaphysical, positive through which our intelligence passes in all speculations. Corresponding to these three states are three forms of social life,

the military, the legal, and the industrial. The most important transition yet undergone by mankind is that which gave rise to industrial organization, which substituted serfdom for slavery, extended the influence of domestic affections, tended to establish castes, and to unite different populations, etc. Social regeneration must, primarily, be speculative or intellectual: in the future the speculative class will rule, because of the need men will naturally come to feel for its influence in affairs of life.

The Religion of Humanity. - Society is, in its highest idea, a harmony of individual and collective humanity. This renders it obligatory upon the individual to subordinate himself to collective humanity, to live a life of unselfish love and sacrifice as far as may be possible. Humanity is the, for us, Supreme Being, the only being we can know and worship. This Grand Être is most perfectly symbolized in woman, who, accordingly, living or as preserved in memory, should be made an object of private worship, as collective humanity is of public worship. The ministers of the religion of humanity are, in the family, the women of the family, and in society at large, a class of (male) priests who, without power to command, have authority as advisers

and remonstrators, as the instructors of youth and as the sole depositaries of the medical art. Though philosophers, they subordinate their intellectual powers and attainments to the ends of the social feeling, which is the essence of religion. The religious motto of the Positivist is, "L'Amour pour principe, l'Ordre pour base, et le Progrès pour but,” by "progress" being understood the continued increase of mastery of man's defects and, in particular, those of the moral nature.

Result. As regards Comte, it seems sufficient merely to say that his "Positivism" is essentially that "scientific (semi-rationalistic) empiricism which in Hume (who, as pointed out by J. S. Mill, went a step-though but a step beyond the position of Comte even) logically led to the purest scepticism. We turn now to the thinker who by almost universal acknowledgment logically put an end to all empiricism in philosophy, Immanuel Kant, — noting, as we leave Comte, that his doctrines have exercised a decided influence upon the later English thinkers, in particular J. S. Mill and Lewes, and some of the Germans, e. g., Eugen Dühring.

§ 112.

(3) German Systems. — Among the German systems (rather too numerous to be fully specified here) taken as a group there appears such an order of development that they may, even chronologically, almost, be arranged in the following succession: (1) Idealists, — (a) subjective, as Kant, Reinhold, Fichte, Schlegel, Schleiermacher, etc.; (b) objective, as Schelling and his disciples; (c) absolute, as Krause, Hegel, etc.; (2) Realists, as Jacobi, Schopenhauer, Herbart, etc.; (3) Ideal-Realists, as Beneke, Trendlenburg, Von Hartmann, Lotze, etc. (We overlook, for the present, minor, sceptical, and materialistic systems.) The German systems, whether regarded individually or as a group, exemplify as it scarcely needs be said more fully than any others of this period the conception of system, or totality. Ger