Humanism in the English 'Grammar' Schools.-But the humanism of the 'grammar' schools in England, as in Italy and Germany, soon became narrow and formal. The purpose of humanistic education came to be not so much a real training in literature as a practical command of Latin as a means of communication in all lands and ages. Accordingly, the training became one of diction- narrow and aries, grammars, and phrase-books. Expressions and formal.

selections were culled from authors and treasured in notebooks, and the methods became largely memoriter and passive. The formalism into which the schools of England had thus fallen by the seventeenth century is depicted in Brinsley's Ludus literarius: or the Grammar Schoole, a work intended to ridicule and reform these conditions. It indicates that the training in Latin was devoted to drill in inflecting, parsing, and construing a fixed set of texts. Lily's Grammar was memorized by the pupils, and references to it were glibly repeated, with little understanding of their meaning. All conversation was based upon some phrase-book, like the Colloquies of Corderius, and a Latin theme had to be ground out each week.

Soon became

English Grammar' and 'Public' Schools To-day.Although reforms have since been made in many of these directions, the organization and the formal humanism of the English 'grammar' school have been preserved in principle even to this day. Mathematics, Largely unchanged. modern languages, and sciences have been added, and a 'modern side' has been established as an alternate for the old course, but the classics are still the emphasized feature, and, to a large degree, the drill methods prevail. But, while it was originally intended that the grammar

The great 'public' schools.

First American secondary schools modeled after English.

schools should, by means of the endowment, be open to rich and poor alike, because of the great increase in expenses, necessary and unnecessary, there are now not many opportunities for any one in the lower classes of society to attend a grammar school. Similarly, a distinction has come to be drawn between 'grammar' and 'public' schools, although it is not a very clear one. In general, a 'public school' has a more aristocratic and wealthier patronage. Nine 'great public schools' were recognized by the Clarendon Commission in 1864,Winchester (Fig. 17), Eton, St. Paul's, Shrewsbury, Westminster, Rugby, Harrow, Merchant Taylors', and Charterhouse; but several other old schools and a number of the stronger foundations of Victoria's reign are generally admitted, and many others claim the dignity of the name that would not be considered eligible outside of the immediate locality.

The 'Grammar' Schools in the American Colonies.It was after these 'grammar' schools of the mother country that the first secondary schools in America were modeled and named. In many instances the fathers of the colonies, such as Edward Hopkins, William Penn, and Roger Williams, had been educated in the grammar schools of England, and naturally sought to model the institutions in their new home after them as nearly as the different conditions would permit. The Boston Latin (Grammar) School was founded as early as 1635 (Fig. 23), and other towns of Massachusetts,-Charlestown, Ipswich, Salem, Dorchester, Newbury, Cambridge, and Roxbury, also before long established grammar schools. Similarly, towns of Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the other colo

nies, had in many cases founded grammar schools before the close of the century. Moreover, the legislatures of Massachusetts (1647) and Connecticut (1650) soon ordered that a 'grammar' school be established in every town having one hundred families. The American grammar schools, like their prototypes, were secondary and sustained no real relation to the elementary schools. They were mostly intended to fit pupils for college, although sometimes the college had not yet been established, and thus to furnish a preliminary step to preparation for the Christian ministry. Hence their course consisted chiefly in reading the classics and the New Testament, and used among its texts Lily's Grammar and the Colloquies of Corderius. And while the hold of formal humanism upon secondary education was somewhat relaxed during the subsequent stages of the 'academy' and the 'high school,' the formal classical training was considered the only means of a liberal education until well into the nineteenth century.

this life.

The Aim and Institutions of Humanistic Education.It can now be seen how far the ideals of humanism had departed from those of the mediæval period. The 'otherworldly' aim, the monastic isolation, and the scholastic discussions had given way to the interests of this life, Interests of personal and social development, and a study of the classics. In the North the movement took on rather a different color from what it did in the peninsula that gave it birth. While Northern humanism was narrower in not concerning itself so much with self-culture, personal expression, and the various opportunities of life, it had a wider vision through interesting itself in society as a whole and in endeavoring to advance morality and