studied the solid things in them as well as the words and lexicons, he were nothing so much to be esteemed as any yeoman or tradesman competently wise in his mother dialect only." And he would teach the Latin writers on agriculture, and the Greek writers on natural history, geography, and medicine for the sake of the subject matter. Social Realism.-But there was another phase of early realism, which often appeared in conjunction with humanistic education, and may be called 'social realism.' Its adherents strove to adapt education to actual living in a real world, and to afford direct practical preparation Preparation for living in a for the opportunities and duties of life. It was generally real world." recommended as the means of education for all members of the upper social class. It sought to combine with the literary elements taught the clergy in the Middle Ages and the scholar in the Renaissance, certain remnants of the old chivalric education as the proper training for gentlemen. It held schools to be of less value as an agency for educating the young aristocrats than training through a tutor and travel. Hence an education in social realism usually included a study of heraldry, Its content. genealogy, riding, fencing, and gymnastics, and involved a study of modern languages and the customs and institutions of neighboring countries. A good illustration of this type of education is found in the educational essays of Montaigne (1533-1592). example. In the Education of Children he holds that virtue comes Montaigne's Education of from experience and breadth of vision rather than from Children as an reading, and declares: "I would have travel the book my young gentleman should study with most attention; for so many humors, so many sects, so many judgments, Locke's Thoughts better opinions, laws, and customs, teach us to judge aright of our own, and inform our understanding to discover its imperfection and natural infirmity." This training, too, he feels, should be under the care of a tutor, who is to be a man of the world, one "whose head is well tempered, rather than well filled." While a gentleman has need of Latin and Greek, Montaigne maintains that one should first study his own language and those of his neighbors. He also stresses physical exercise, and fears the training of boys near their mothers, who "will not endure to see them mount an unruly horse, nor take a foil in hand against a rude fencer." An educational work based on social realism that has been studied even more than the Essays of Montaigne is Some Thoughts concerning Education by John Locke (1632-1704). Locke states the aims of education in the order of their value as 'Virtue, Wisdom (i. e., worldly wisdom), Breeding, and Learning'; and holds that such a training can be secured by the young gentleman only through a tutor, who "should himself be well-bred, understanding the Ways of Carriage and Measures of Civility in all the Variety of Persons, Times and Places, and keep his Pupil, as much as his Age requires, constantly to the Observation of them." In considering the subjectmatter of the training, he maintains that "besides what is to be had from Study and Books, there are other 'Accomplish- Accomplishments necessary for a Gentleman,-dancing, of its content. horseback riding, fencing and wrestling." ments' as part The Relations of Humanistic to Social Realism.Humanistic and social realism, however, constantly appear together in the works of the same author, and it is often difficult to distinguish a writer as advocating tinguish an as of one type or the seen in Milton. one type or the other. The differentiation seems to be largely a matter of emphasis. While one element or Difficult to disthe other may seem to be more prominent in the treatise author of a certain author, the two phases of education are other, as can be largely bound up in each other. While Milton, for instance, is in the main a humanistic realist and advises an education in languages and books, he recommends that considerable time be given, toward the end of the course, to the social sciences-history, ethics, politics, economics, theology-and to such practical training as would bring one in touch with life. He also specifically advocates the experience and knowledge that would come from travel in England and abroad; and defines education as "that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war." On the other hand, Montaigne, the social realist, seems quite as strenuous in urging a more realistic humanism. In his essay, On Pedantry, he launches most vigorous ridicule against the prevailing narrow humanistic education, with its memorizing of words and forms, and insists: "Let the master not only examine him about the words of his lesson, but also as to the sense and meaning of them, and let him judge of the profit he has made, not by the testimony of his memory, but that of his understanding." Montaigne, And it is equally difficult to state whether humanistic and others or social elements prevail in Locke's Thoughts, the Gargantua of Rabelais (1495-1553), the Positions of Mulcaster (1530-1611), and other treatises of the period. It is true, of course, that in certain other works written upon the training of the aristocracy, social realism is Distinctive social realists. Other sugges tions in the early realists. more exclusively stressed. The titles of most of these reveal their content, as can easily be seen in the case of such productions as Castiglione's The Courtier (1528), Elyot's The Governour (1531), Peacham's The Compleat Gentleman (1622), and Brathwaite's The English Gentleman (1630). But, in most of the early realistic works, humanistic and social elements are inextricably interwoven; and humanistic and social realism, taken together, seem to constitute a natural bridge from humanism over to sense realism. The Influence of the Innovators upon Education.— There is, however, a variety of other brilliant educational suggestions in each of these early realists. All of them hold to a broader and better rounded training and more natural and informal methods than those in vogue. Mulcaster even advocates universal elementary education, the professional training of teachers, and the education of girls, and undertakes to make a naïve analysis of the mind as the basis of a philosophy of education. So suggestive have the recommendations of the early realists proved to modern education that these authors are often known as the 'innovators.' Yet their theories do not seem to have affected greatly the educational practice of the times. They did tend to disrupt traditionalism and the formal humanism, to bring But their in- education into touch with society and preparation for real life, and to popularize a wider content and a more informal procedure, but their influence appeared through their successors and later education rather than directly in the schools of the period. Locke, for instance, in addition to the influence he had upon Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and other reformers, must in some measure have fluence was indirect. been responsible for the great development of the physical and ethical sides of education in the public and grammar schools of England, together with the tendency of these institutions to consider such aspects of rather more importance than the purely intellectual. His plea for a tutor as the means of shaping manners and morals has also probably had its effect upon the education of the English aristocracy. Training for the nobility in modern lan guages, chival ric arts, and the sciences. The Ritterakademien.-In the German states, on the other hand, there arose at the courts during the seventeenth century an actually new type of educational institution as the outgrowth of social realism. Here, in place of the old humanistic education, there was developed a special training for the young nobles in French, Italian, Spanish, and English, in such accomplishments as courtly conduct, dancing, fencing, and riding, and in philosophy, mathematics, physics, geography, statistics, law, genealogy, and heraldry. The educational institutions in which this training was embodied were known as Ritterakademien or 'academies for the nobles.' Such academies were founded at Colberg, Luneberg, Vienna, Wolffenbüttel, and many other centers before the close of the century. They originally covered the work of the gymnasia, although substituting the modern languages, sciences, and the knightly arts that have been mentioned for the Greek and Hebrew, and adding a little from the course of the university. Gradually, however, they became part of the regular secondary Absorbed into system. The Academies in England.-Milton's suggestions were ultimately materialized in an even more influential type of school. In the Tractate he had recommended secondary |