Ritterakade mien, ing the children to measure with the hour-glass and sun-dial, to observe the ordinary plants and animals, and to carry on other objective studies of a simple character. Many other attempts at instruction in science were made elsewhere in the German states, both in private and public education, and the same tendency appeared in the states of Italy, and in France, Holland, and England. Secondary Schools.-But the new realistic tendencies appeared also in secondary education. While in Germany it was not until the eighteenth century that there were any evidences of sense realism in the gymnasia, languages of neighboring countries and considerable Science in the science appeared in the Ritterakademien (see p. 157) by the middle of the seventeenth, and toward the end of the century in the schools of Francke and other 'pietists' at Halle were embodied all the realistic elements of Comenius. While the pietists adopted these ideas largely for their religious side, as a protest and reaction to the rationalistic Ritterakademien, they did not hesitate also to stress the science content and the study of the vernacular. In the secondary school known as the Pädagogium, which he had started for well-to-do boys, Francke included training in the vernacular, mathematics, geography, natural science, astronomy, anatomy, and Realschule, and materia medica; and the Realschule, established by his colleague, Semler, went even more fully into the vernacular, mathematics, and the sciences, pure and applied. This realistic instruction of the pietists was brought by Hecker to Berlin, where he started his famous Realschule in 1747, and similar institutions soon spread throughout Prussia. In England, while very few of and academies. the grammar and public schools (see p. 120) as yet intro Pädagogium, and in gram mar schools duced even the elements of science into their course, the academies (see p. 157) were rich in sciences, mathematics, and the vernacular. This was also true of the academies that sprang up in America (see p. 158). and Cam The Universities.-The universities were slower in responding to the movement of sense realism. As the result of its pietistic origin, however, the University of Halle was realistic almost from its beginning in 1692. Sciences in Halle, GöttinGöttingen, the next institution to become hospitable gen, and other universities, to the tendency, did not start it until 1737. But soon afterward the movement became general, and by the end of the eighteenth century all the German universities —at least, all under Protestant auspices-had created professorships in the sciences. While the English universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were much slower than and in Oxford those of Germany in adopting the new subjects, and it bridge. was a century and a half before these institutions became known for their science, during the professorship of Isaac Newton (1669-1702) considerable was done toward making Cambridge mathematical and scientific, and in the course of the eighteenth century several chairs in the sciences were established. Besides formulating the law of gravitation, Newton lectured and wrote Great work of at Cambridge upon calculus, astronomy, optics, and the spectrum. He became one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists the world has known, and he did much to create a scientific atmosphere in other educational institutions, as well as Cambridge. America also felt the scientific impulse in its higher institutions. Some study of astronomy, botany, and physics was possible Science in at Harvard even in the seventeenth century, and during colleges. the eighteenth Yale, Princeton, King's (afterward Colum Newton. American bia), Dartmouth, Union, and Pennsylvania all came to offer a little work in physics, and at times in chemistry, geology, astronomy, and biology. In his proposals for the prospective 'seminary' in New York (1753), which was destined to become Columbia University, and in the actual course of the academy at Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania), over which he presided, Dr. William Smith put a most progressive program of sciences, including the rudiments of mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, botany, zoology, and physiology. But for half a century after this American institutions did little with the sciences as laboratory studies. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Graves, During the Transition (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XVIII; and Great Educators of Three Centuries (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. II, IV, and VI; Monroe, Text-book (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 461-501. The following works are standard for the authors mentioned: Adamson, J. W., Pioneers of Modern Education (Macmillan, 1905), chap. III (Bacon); Barnard, H., German Teachers and Educators, pp. 343-370 (Ratich); Fowler, T., Bacon's Novum Organum (Oxford, Clarendon Press); Laurie, S. S., John Amos Comenius (Bardeen, Syracuse, 1892); Monroe, W. S., Comenius (Scribner, 1900); and Quick, R. H., Educational Reformers (Appleton, 1896), chap. IX (Ratich) and X (Comenius). An account of sense realism is afforded by Adamson, op. cit., chap. I, and of its effect upon the schools by Barnard, op. cit., pp. 302-317, and by Paulsen, F., German Education (Scribner, 1908), pp. 117–133. CHAPTER XVI FORMAL DISCIPLINE IN EDUCATION OUTLINE Locke is often classed with the advocates of realism or of naturalism, but the keynote to his thought is 'discipline.' This is to be obtained in intellectual training through mathematics; in moral training, through the control of desires by reason; and in physical training, through a 'hardening process.' Locke has, therefore, often been viewed as the great advocate of the theory of formal discipline, according to which certain subjects yield a general power that may be applied in any direction, and should be studied by all. This doctrine has greatly influenced education, but in the late nineteenth century there was a decided reaction from it. Recently this extreme reaction has been modified, and a position taken with which Locke's real attitude would seem to be in harmony. Locke's Work and Its Various Classifications.-Because of their relation to an important topic in modern education, the theories of John Locke (1632-1704) should receive further attention than they have yet been given. No writer on education has been more variously classified Often classed as an early than he. We have already seen (p. 154) that the general realist, a sense tenor of his Thoughts concerning Education would lead naturalist. us to group him with the early realistic movement. There are also elements in this work that would seem to place him with the sense realists, and many of his ideas proved so similar and suggestive to Rousseau's realist, or a thought (see p. 213), that he has sometimes been classed among the advocates of naturalism. But Locke's Thoughts, by which his educational position is often exclusively judged, were simply a set of practical suggestions for the education of a gentleman, written for a friend as advice in bringing up his son. They make clear his general sympathy with the current educational reform, but do not bring out his main point of view. His central thought appears more definitely through the philosophical principles in his famous Essay concerning the Human Understanding, and through the intellectual training suggested in his other educational work, Conduct of the Understanding, which was originally an additional book and application of the Essay. Locke's Disciplinary Theory in Intellectual Education.-Probably Locke's underlying thought as to the proper method of intellectual, moral, and physical trainBut his under- ing may best be summed up in the word 'discipline.' lying thought is 'discipline'. This educational attitude is a natural corollary of his philosophic position. In his Essay he holds that ideas are not born in one, but that all knowledge comes from experience. The mind, he declares, is like 'white paper, or wax,' upon which impressions from the outside world are made through our senses. When the ideas are once in mind, it is necessary to determine what they tell us in the way of truth. Hence, to train the mind to make proper discriminations, he declares in the Conduct of the Understanding that practice and discipline are necessary. "Would you have a man reason well, you must use him to it betimes, exercise his mind in observing the connecsciences should tion of ideas and following them in train.' As to the means of effecting this mental discipline, Locke holds: To train the mind, mathe matics and a range of be studied. |