"Nothing does this better than mathematics, which therefore I think should be taught all those who have the time and opportunity, not so much to make them mathematicians as to make them reasonable creatures, that having got the way of reasoning, which that study necessarily brings the mind to, they might be able to transfer it to other parts of knowledge as they shall have occasion." Similarly, he advises a wide range of sciences, "to accustom our minds to all sorts of ideas and the proper ways of examining their habitudes and relations; not to make them perfect in any one of the sciences, but so to open and dispose their minds as may best make them capable of any, when they shall apply themselves to it."

Disciplinary Attitude in Moral and Physical Train

ing. The same disciplinary conception of education underlies Locke's ideals of moral training: "That a man For moral training, the is able to deny himself his own desires, cross his own desires should be guided by inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as reason. best, tho' the appetite lean the other way. This power is to be got and improved by custom, made easy and familiar by an early practice." And even more definitely disciplinary is the well-known 'hardening process,' For physical which he recommends in physical training: "The first training, the thing to be taken care of is that children be not too process warmly clad or covered, winter or summer. The face, when we are born, is no less tender than any other part of the body. It is use alone hardens it, and makes it more able to endure the cold." He likewise advises that a boy's "feet be washed every day in cold water,” that he "have his shoes so thin that they might leak and let in water," that he "play in the wind and sun without a hat," and that "his bed be hard."

'hardening

should be used

Evolved

through the

of the utilitarian argument.

Origin, Significance, and Influence of the Theory of Formal Discipline. This emphasis upon discipline in training of every sort-intellectual, moral, physical-has often caused Locke to be regarded as the first great exponent of the educational doctrine of 'formal discipline.' That theory has been so widespread and important during the past two centuries as to require consideration here. During the Middle Ages and the early period of humanism Latin was not only of cultural, but of practical utilitarian value. It was the language of the Church and of diplomacy, and in it was locked up all the disappearance learning of the times. All guidance in science, literature, philosophy, and politics that received any consideration was couched in its terms. But with the decline of ecclesiastical influence, the development of vernacular languages, and the scientific awakening in the seventeenth century (see pp. 163 f.), this utilitarian argument for the study of Latin was largely swept away. Appeal was then made in behalf of the subject to the doctrine of 'formal discipline,' which was supported by the 'faculty' psychology of Aristotle. It was held that the study of Latin yields results out of all proportion to the effort expended, and gives a general power that may be applied in any direction. A similar claim was before long made for Greek and mathematics. Mathematics was declared to sharpen the 'faculty of reason,' while the classic languages were believed to improve the 'faculty of memory.' Consequently, it gradually came to be argued by formal disciplinarians that every one should take these all-important studies, regardless of certain studies, his interest, ability, or purpose in life, since he would

A general power afforded.

Every one

should take

regardless of interest.

thus best prepare himself for any field of labor. All who

proved unfitted for these particular subjects have, therefore, been supposed to be not qualified for the higher duties and responsibilities, and to be unworthy of consideration in higher education.

scientists.

institutions of

This doctrine of formal discipline has had a tremendous effect upon each stage of education in practically every country and during every period until recently. Even the scientists and advocates of a variety of other Used by subjects, instead of arguing for content value and particular training, have made strenuous efforts to meet this argument by pointing out the formal discipline in their own studies (see pp. 404 f.). Excellent examples of the effect of this theory upon educational institutions Effect upon are found in the formal classicism of the English grammar various counand public schools and universities and of the German gymnasiums. While in the United States a newer and more flexible society has enabled changes to be more readily made, as late as the last decade of the nineteenth century, Greek, Latin, and mathematics largely made up the staples in many high schools, colleges, and universities, and the husks of formal grammar were often defended in elementary education upon the score of formal discipline.

tries.

Opposition to the Disciplinary Theory and More Recent Modification.-At the beginning of the twentieth century, however, with the abandonment of the 'faculty psychology' and the development of educational theory, a decided reaction from the doctrines of formal discipline began among psychologists and common sense educators. It is now almost universally conceded that specific, rather than general, power is developed by the various Specific, not studies, and no student is held to be unworthy of educa

general, power.

Content,

rather than

possible.

tion or impervious to culture, simply because he is not adapted to the classics or mathematics. In consequence, the content of studies, rather than the process of acquisiform, stressed. tion, has come to be emphasized, the curriculum has everywhere been broadened, and the principle of the election of subjects largely recognized. It has, however, been felt within the last half dozen years that in reacting from the old theory of formal discipline, educators went too far. While it is still held that emphasis must be laid upon the specific character of mental training, But some gen- there are some generalized powers and values to be oberalized powers tained. It is realized that "a general benefit can be derived from specific training in so far as the person trained has consciously wrought out in connection with the specific training a general concept of method, based upon the specific methods used in that training" (F. A. Hodge). Thus a student who has once realized the value of close reasoning through mathematical demonstrations is likely to develop a general concept of method, and can hardly be satisfied any longer with slovenly thinking in other fields; and the fine discriminations discovered in the classical authors, the balanced judgment used in historical method, and the accuracy required in the study of the sciences, may well be abstracted and tend to furnish a generalized ideal for other lines of endeavor.

And Locke's 'discipline' is of this kind.

Locke's Real Position on Formal Discipline.-It would seem as if this modified form of general power were all that Locke had in mind. He definitely concedes that "learning pages of Latin by heart, no more fits the memory for retention of anything else, than the graving of one sentence in lead makes it the more capable of retaining firmly any other characters." And

values of

while he holds that the method of reasoning in mathematics can be transferred 'to other parts of knowledge,' he declares that men who are reasonable in some things are often very unreasonable in others, and "men who may reason well in one sort of matters to-day may not do so at all a year hence." The generalized benefits Generalized that students may obtain from mathematics are simply mathematics. that it "would show them the necessity there is, in reasoning, to separate all distinct ideas, and see the habitudes that all those concerned in the present inquiry have to one another, and to lay by those which relate not to the proposition in hand and wholly to leave them out of the reckoning. This is that which in other subjects is absolutely requisite to just reasoning." Thus Locke appears to be rather in harmony with modern educational theory than a thorough-going advocate of formal Locke did not discipline. At any rate, it should be recognized that formalism of he did not defend, but vigorously assailed, the grammatical and linguistic grind in the English public schools. His attitude toward formal discipline seems to have sprung from his desire to root out the traditional and false, rather than to support the narrow humanistic curricula of the times.

defend the

public schools,

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Graves, During the Transition (Macmillan, 1910), pp. 305–311; and Great Educators (Macmillan, 1912), chap. VI; Monroe, Textbook (Macmillan, 1905), chap. IX. For a more extended account of Locke, read his Thoughts and Conduct, and Fowler, T., John Locke (Macmillan, 1901). The literature of formal discipline is most extensive and the subject is still under discussion; but a good summary of all written up to 1911 is furnished in Heck,