Studies improved by Pestalozzi

of all three find their roots in Rousseau (Fig. 44). His 'naturalism' was continued by Pestalozzi (Fig. 45) in his 'development' and 'observation,' which were, in turn, further elaborated by Froebel and Herbart respectively (Figs. 47 and 46). Through his 'observation' methods, Pestalozzi greatly improved the teaching of arithmetic, language work, geography, elementary science, drawing, writing, reading, and music, and, by means of Fellenberg's work, developed industrial and philanthropic training. As a result of Herbart's moral and religious aim, marked advances in the teaching of history and literature have taken place, and, largely through his carefully wrought educational doctrines, order and system have everycontributed by where been introduced into instruction. From Froebel's

and Herbart,

and training

Froebel.

Period of re

lozzi,

Froebel,

mystic interpretation of 'natural development' we have obtained the kindergarten training for a period of life hitherto largely neglected, the informal occupations, manual training, and other studies of motor expression, forms of Pesta- together with psychological and social principles that underlie every stage of education. Pestalozzi's reforms were felt in Europe throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, but did not have any wide effect upon the United States until after the 'Oswego movement' in the sixties. The influence of Froebel appeared in and Herbart. Europe shortly after the middle of the century, and began to rise to its height in America about 1880. The Herbartian theory and practice became popular in Germany between 1865 and 1885, while the growth of Herbartianism in the United States began about five years after the latter date. Hence the development of modern educational practice, due to these three great re

formers, falls distinctly within the period of the nineteenth century.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Graves, In Modern Times (Macmillan, 1913), chap. VII; Great Educators (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. X and XI; Monroe, Textbook (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 622-673; Parker, Modern Elementary Education (Ginn, 1912), chaps. XVII and XVIII. Herbart's Science of Education (translated by Felkin), and Outlines of Educational Doctrine (translated by Lange and De Garmo, Macmillan, 1909), and Froebel's Education of Man (translated by Hailmann; Appleton, 1894), Pedagogics of the Kindergarten and Education by Development (translated by Jarvis; Appleton, 1897 and 1899), and Mother Play (translated by Eliot and Blow, Appleton, 1896), should be read at least cursorily. The best brief treatise on Herbart and Herbartianism (Scribner, 1896) is that by De Garmo, C., a graphic description of The Herbartian Psychology (Heath, 1898) is given by Adams, J., in chap. III, and a history of The Doctrines of Herbart in the United States as a doctoral dissertation (University of Pennsylvania) by Randels, G. B. A good account of Froebel and Education by Self-Activity (Scribner, 1897) has been furnished by Bowen, H. C.; a conservative treatment of Kindergarten Education (Education in the United States, edited by N. M. Butler, Monograph No. 1), by Blow, Susan E.; an interesting treatise on Kindergarten in American Education (Macmillan, 1908), by Vandewalker, Nina C.; and a critical account of The Psychology of the Kindergarten (Teachers College Record, vol. IV, pp. 377-408), by Thorndike, E. L.

CHAPTER XXV

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION

OUTLINE

The leading states of Western Europe and of Canada have, during the past century and a half, organized systems of education, which may prove suggestive.

In Prussia, owing to a strong line of monarchs, state control has taken the place of ecclesiastical through a series of decrees and enactments. The people's schools are quite separate from the secondary schools. Three types of secondary institutions have developed, the 'gymnasium,' with the classics as staples; the 'real-school,' with modern languages and sciences; and the 'realgymnasium,' with its compromise between the other two. The universities have likewise been emancipated from ecclesiastical control.

In France, a highly centralized system has been developed. Napoleon united secondary and higher education in a single corporation; under Louis Philippe, an organization of elementary schools was made; and, during the third republic, elementary education has been made free, compulsory, and secular. The present secondary system-lycées and communal colleges-began with Napoleon, and has now been differentiated into several courses. One-half of the universities established by Napoleon were suppressed during the Restoration, but since 1896 there has been a university in each of the sixteen 'academies,' save one.

In England national education has grown out of the conflict of a number of social elements. The sentiment for universal training appeared toward the close of the eighteenth century, but not until 1870 were 'board schools' established. In 1899 a central Board of Education was created; and the Act of 1902, while per