student to a relatively few courses taught by thorough laboratory methods. Mann Except for geography, which appeared in the curric- Influence of ulum early in the century, the rudiments practically constituted the entire course of the elementary school until the time of Horace Mann. Largely through his efforts, physiology was widely introduced by the middle of the century. About a dozen years later the Pestaloz- and Pestalozzi zian object teaching began to come in through the Oswego methods, although it tended to become formalized. Thus materials in several of the sciences came to be used, and the pupils were required to describe them in scientific terms. Toward the close of the century the sciences came to be presented more informally by the method generally known as 'nature study.' This movement quickly spread through the country, and has most recently appeared in the guise of agricultural instruction (see p. 424). Many states now require agriculture as a requisite for a teacher's certificate, and most normal schools have come to furnish a training in the subject. Interrelation of the Scientific with the Psychological and Sociological Movements. It is evident that there has been a marked scientific movement in the educational systems of all countries during the past two hundred years. The sciences began to appear in the curricula of educational institutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but their rapid increase, and the use of laboratories and the scientific method in instruction, dated from the middle of the nineteenth. In some re- formal discispects this scientific movement has been closely related pline and to the other modern tendencies in education,-the psychological and the sociological. The coincidence of Attitude upon method. Means of the scientific movement with the psychological on the question of formal discipline has been evident (pp. 183 f.). The influence of the development of the sciences upon educational method also constitutes part of the psychological movement. The sciences demanded entirely different methods of teaching from the traditional procedure. These innovations were worked out slowly by experimentation, and when they proved to be more in keeping with psychology, they reacted upon the teaching of the older subjects and came to be utilized in history, politics, philology, and other studies. A corresponding improvement in the presentation of the form, content, and arrangement of various subjects has taken place in text-books, and a radically different set of books and authors has been rendered necessary. The scientific movement has even more points in common with the sociological. In its opposition to the disciplinarians and its stress upon content rather than form, the scientific tendency coincides with the sociological, although the former looks rather to the natural sciences as a means of individual welfare, and the latter human welfare. to the social and political sciences to equip the individual for life in social institutions and to secure the progress of society. But while the scientist usually states his argument in individual terms, because of his connection in time and sympathy with the individualism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the same writer usually, as in the case of Rousseau, Combe, Spencer, and Huxley, advocates the social, moral, and political sciences as a means of complete living. Similarly, the sociological movement has especial kinship with the economic and utilitarian aspects of the study of the sciences, for professional, technical, and commercial institutions have been evolved because of sociological as well as scientific demands. Again, the use of the sciences in education as a means of preparing for life and the needs of society overlaps the modern sociological principle of furthering democracy. Both tendencies lead to the best development of all classes and to the abandonment of artificial strata in society. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Graves, In Modern Times (Macmillan, 1913), chap. X; and Great Educators (Macmillan, 1912), chap. XIV; Monroe, Textbook (Macmillan, 1905), chap. XII; Parker, Modern Elementary Education (Ginn, 1912), pp. 331-340. Popular accounts of the growth of science can be found in Buckley, Arabella B., A Short History of Natural Science (Appleton), and Williams, H. S., Story of Nineteenth Century Science (Harper). Spencer's Education and Huxley's Science and Education should be read. Further arguments for the study of science can be found in Coulter, J. M., The Mission of Science in Education (Science, II, 12, pp. 281-293); Dryer, C. R., Science in Secondary Schools (Prize Essay in The Academy, May, 1888, pp. 197-221); Galloway, R., Education, Scientific and Technical (Trübner, London, 1881); Norton, W. H., The Social Service of Science (Science, II, 13, pp. 644ff.); Pearson, K., Grammar of Science (Macmillan, 1911), chap. I; Roberts, R. D., Science in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge University Press, 1901), chap. VII; Sedgwick, W. T., Educational Value of the Method of Science (Educational Review, vol. V, pp. 243ff.), and especially Youmans, E. L., Culture Demanded by Modern Life (Appleton, 1867). CHAPTER XXVII PRESENT DAY TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION OUTLINE At the present time there is great progress in industrial, commercial, and agricultural training in the schools of Europe and America. For a quarter of a century the educational systems of Europe have been giving attention to moral training, and of late there has been some discussion of the subject in the United States. All the great nations now provide for the training of mental defectives, and for some time training has been afforded those defective in some sense organ. The attempts at improved methods of teaching are witnessed by the study of industries in the experimental school of Dewey, by the formulation of a curriculum in terms of normal activities of other elementary schools, and by the 'didactic apparatus' and the devices for learning the 'three r's' of Montessori. Methods of mental measurement are being devised for the elementary school subjects by Thorndike and others, and systems of measurement are being utilized in administration. Darwin's theory of evolution has revolutionized our attitude, imagery, and vocabulary in education. There is also a great variety of other educational movements in all grades of education. Recent Educational Progress.-Because of the notable development of science and invention, which has been noted in the last chapter, the nineteenth century has often been referred to as the 'wonderful' century. Such a term affords no better description of material achieve ment than of the remarkable progress that has taken place in education. Previous chapters have indicated the extent to which, through various movements, education has advanced and broadened in conception, but the near future of education will probably witness a much greater development. At the present time there are constant efforts at a modification and a reconstruction Constant of education in the interest of a better adjustment of construction of efforts at a rethe individual to his social environment and of greatly improved conditions in society itself. It would, of course, be impossible to describe all of these movements even in the briefest manner, but some of the present day tendencies that appear most significant should now engage our attention. education. for industrial The Growth of Industrial Training.-The movement that is perhaps most widely discussed to-day is the introduction of vocational training into the systems of education. There is now an especial need for this type Social reasons of training. Since the industrial revolution and the education. development of the factory system, the master no longer works by the side of his apprentice and instructs him, and the ambition of the youth can no longer be spurred by the hope that he may himself some day become a master. His experience is generally confined to some single process, and only a few of the operatives require anything more than low-grade skill. Nor, as a rule, will the employer undertake any systematic education of his workmen, when the mobility of labor permits of no guarantee that he will reap the benefit of such efforts, and the modern industrial plant is poorly adapted to supplying the necessary theoretical training for experts. Hence an outside agency-the school-has been called |