in the Middle

fessional courses of the Moorish colleges. In general, they came into existence through the many broadening In general a product of all influences of the later Middle Ages. Their rise was in- that was best timately connected with the stimulus of the Moslem Ages. presentation of Greek philosophy and science, with the interest in dialectic and theological discussions, which led to the development of scholasticism, with the reaction from 'otherworldliness' resulting from the ideals of chivalry, and with the growth of cities and wealth, and the consequent emphasis upon secular interests and knowledge (see chap. xi). However, while they were all more or less the product of the same factors, no two sprang from exactly the same set of causes, and special conditions played a part in the evolution of each university.

medical school

The Foundation of Universities at Salerno, Bologna, and Paris. The oldest of these institutions, that at Salerno, near Naples, was simply a school of medicine, and originated through the survival of the old Greek Causes of the medical works in Southwestern Italy, and through the at Salerno. attraction of the mineral springs and salubrity of this particular place. By the middle of the eleventh century Salerno was well known as the leading place for medical study. It was, however, never chartered as a regular university, although in 1231 Frederick II recognized it as the school of medicine for the university he had created at Naples some seven years earlier.

On the other hand, Northern Italy became known as a center for the study of Roman law. The cities here, in order to defend their independence, were led to study this Origin of the subject, and endeavored to find some special charter, Bologna

grant, or edict from the old Roman emperors upon which to base their claims. Several northern centers were

courses at

in civil law

renowned for their investigation of the Roman civil law, but early in the twelfth century Bologna became preeminent through the lectures of Irnerius. By him the entire Corpus Juris Civilis, a compilation of Roman law made by eminent jurists in the sixth century at the command of the emperor Justinian, was collected and critically discussed. Influenced by this example, a monk of Bologna, named Gratian, undertook to codify all edicts and formulations of popes and councils in a convenient text-book. The Decree of Gratian, which resulted, was almost immediately recognized as the authority upon the subject, and canon law came to be studied and canon law. here with the same thoroughness as civil law. The university at Bologna was regularly chartered by Frederick Barbarossa in 1158, probably as a recognition of the services of its masters in support of his imperial claims, and faculties of arts, medicine, and theology were established at various times. It was thus the first real university, and its reputation soon became widespread.

of liberal arts

at Paris.

Next in order of foundation came the university at Paris, which was by far the most famous of all. The Development special interest here, as in this part of Europe generally, and theology was dialectic and scholasticism. The university grew out of the cathedral school at Notre Dame, which had acquired considerable reputation under the headship of William of Champeaux, Abelard, and Peter the Lombard, but it was not until 1200, after canon law and medicine had been added to the liberal arts and theology, that it received complete recognition by the charter of Philip Augustus.

Bologna and Paris as the Models for Other Universities. Salerno, as we have seen, was not a real univer

sity, and it did not reproduce its type; but Bologna, and even more Paris, became the mother of universities, for many other institutions were organized after their general plans. At Bologna the students, who were usually mature men, had entire charge of the government of the university. They selected the masters and determined the fees, length of term, and time of beginning. But in Paris, where the students were younger, the government was in the hands of the masters. Consequently, new foundations in the North, where Paris was the type, usually became 'master-universities,' while those of the 'MasterSouth were 'student-universities.' During the thir- in the North, teenth and fourteenth centuries it became fashionable for universities" the authorities, civil and ecclesiastical, to charter existing in the South. organizations or to found new institutions on one of these two plans, and by the time the Renaissance was well started about eighty universities had been established in Europe. Not all of these foundations were permanent, however, for some thirty have, in the course of time, become extinct, and those which remain are much changed in character.

universities'

but 'student

Privileges Granted to the Universities.-From the time of the earliest official recognition of the universities, a large variety of exemptions, immunities, and other special privileges were conferred upon the organizations or upon their masters and students, by the charters of popes, emperors, kings, and municipalities. The students of the universities were in many instances taken under the immediate protection of the sovereign, and were al- Protection and lowed to be tried in special courts of their own, independent of civil jurisdiction, and to possess complete autonomy in all their internal affairs. Generally masters, students,

autonomy,

immunity from military ser

ters and to

'strike'.

and their retainers alike were relieved from all taxation and from military service. Likewise, universities were taxation and granted the right to license masters to lecture anywhere vice, and right without further examination (jus ubique docendi), and the to license mas- privilege of 'striking' (cessatio), when university rights were infringed. If no redress were given in the latter case, the suspension of lectures was followed by emigration of the university to another town. This could easily be done, since none of the mediæval universities had buildings of their own, and there was no need of expensive libraries, laboratories, and other equipment.

Wandering students.

Through such special rights the universities obtained great power and became very independent. Soon the liberty allowed to students degenerated into recklessness and license, and they became dissipated and quarrelsome. This is especially seen in the life of the so-called 'wandering students,' who migrated from university to university, begging their way, and were shiftless, rollicking, and vicious. The one compensating feature of such degeneracy was their production of jovial Latin and German songs to voice their appreciation of forbidden pleasures and their protest against restraint.

Organization of the Universities.-The term universitas, or 'university,' did not imply originally, as often claimed since, an institution where 'everything' is taught, The 'univer- but it was used of any legal corporation, and only in the

sity' a corporation.

course of time was it limited to an organization of masters and students. The phrase studium generale was also often used of a university, to indicate a school where the students from all parts of civilization were received, and to contrast it with a studium particulare, which was confined to pupils of a limited neighborhood. The formation

of a university had been preceded by the organization of The nations, 'nations,' or bodies of students grouped according to the part of Europe from which they came, but these nations soon began to combine for the sake of obtaining greater privileges and power. Every year each nation chose a 'councilor,' who was to represent it and guard its inter- councilors, ests. On the side of the masters, the university became

organized into 'faculties,' of which there might be at

least four, arts, law, medicine, and theology; and each faculty came to elect a 'dean' as its representative. The faculties, deans, and deans and the councilors jointly elected the 'rector,' or rector. head of the university.

Course in the Four Faculties.-The course of study to be offered by each faculty was largely fixed by papal decree or university legislation during the thirteenth century. The course in arts, which occupied six years, in- Arts. cluded the texts on the liberal arts mentioned for the monastic schools (see pp. 56 f.) and several of the treatises of Aristotle, as rapidly as they were recovered. In the law course, Corpus Juris Civilis was the authorized text for civil law, and the Decree of Gratian for canon law. Law. The faculty of medicine utilized the Greek treatises by Medicine. Hippocrates (c. 460-375 B. C.) and Galen (c. 130-200 A. D.), the Canon of Avicenna (see p. 66), and the works of certain Jewish and Salernitan physicians. The students of theology put most of their time upon the Theology. four books of Peter the Lombard's Sententiæ (Fig. 9), although the Bible was studied incidentally.

The Methods of Instruction.-The training of a mediæval student consisted not only in acquiring the subjects mentioned, but in learning to debate upon them. The acquisition of the subject-matter was accomplished