Malachi is rendered probable by the excessive interest which he manifests in the priestly order, and also that the books of Ezra and the Chronicles favour the conclusion that Ezra took part anonymously in the completion of the canon. If it be correct to attribute to Ezra-the only man of God who is mentioned in the Scriptures along with Nehemiah, as living at that time-the last four anonymous Psalms, which certainly belong to the period in which he lived, the works of Ezra would then form the conclusion of all three departments of sacred literature, and from his entire position this is by no means improbable.

The heading of the Book of Malachi, "burden' of the word of the Lord to Israel," is a sufficient indication of the character of the book, as containing one single prophetic address, the tenor of which is threatening and punitive, not comforting or promising. In the prophecy itself this unity is manifest in the expressions employed. The charges are constantly followed by an enquiry on the part of those who are punished, on what ground the punishment is inflicted, and this again by a fuller explanation on the part of the prophet (compare, for example, chap. i. 6, 7, ii. 14, 17, iii. 7, 8, 13). Eichhorn and De Wette pretend that this uniformity of style is a sign of exhaustion. But if we look attentively at the plan of the prophecy, if we observe how, with all that is apparently fragmentary, it forms a closely connected whole, and how the expressions throughout are utterances of the very sentiment, against which the prophet is contending, it will assume a totally different aspect. To regard punishments in the manner indicated here is the peculiar characteristic of this state of mind, this Pelagian blindness, which knows neither itself nor God. And the unchangeable character of such a disposition could not be exhibited in a more striking manner, than by the adoption, throughout, of precisely the same mode of expression. The self-righteous man is thus brought distinctly before the mind.

But if we look merely at the contents of the book, his portrait

see the remarks on Zech. ix. 1. Hitzig explains it as meaning utterance, word of Jehovah," but in this case it would be rendered superfluous by 27, which follows.

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VOL. IV.

L

presents itself on every hand. The captivity formed an important turning-point in the thoughts and feelings of the Israelites. Even before that event, ungodliness manifested itself in two different forms, open infidelity, which either ridiculed all religion or gave itself up to idolatry, and a dead reliance upon justification by works, a hope of meriting the favour of God by a tattered and imperfect outward righteousness, in spite of corruptions and enmity to God within. The latter disposition is depicted and opposed in the 50th Psalm, and the 1st chapter of Isaiah, but it is still more vigorously resisted in the second part, especially in chap. lviii. Previous to the captivity, the former was by far the more prevalent of the two forms of religion. The captivity itself made a deep impression upon the nation. At first a better state of feeling prevailed among those who returned. Haggai and Zechariah found more occasion to comfort troubled minds, than to reprove the hardened and terrify them by severe threatenings. But it soon became apparent, that with the mass of the people the professed repentance was only hypocritical, and that corruption was still burning under the ashes, ready to burst into flames again in due time. Even Zechariah found occasion to announce a new and destructive judgment upon Judea, as soon as the wickedness, which existed in the germ in his own day, should have struck its roots and put forth branches (compare chap. v. and xi). The growth of these germs made rapid progress between his day and that of Malachi. It was only upon the form in which irreligion manifested itself, that the captivity continued to exert a powerful influence. The second of the two forms referred to now attained to sole supremacy. The people still shrank back from the open profession of irreligion. It was not till a much later period, that Sadduceeism arose by a powerful movement from without; and even after this, Phariseeism retained its influence unquestioned over the great mass of the nation. In its leading features the latter was fully developed in the time of Malachi. To perceive this we need only consider the prominence of the priestly order, the utter absence of any deep-rooted convictions of sin and righteousness, the striving after an outward fulfilment of the law, the thirst for judgments upon the heathen, who were regarded as the sole objects of the judicial punishment of God, and the murmuring

against God, which Calvin has so strikingly described as a distinguishing characteristic of hypocrisy. "Thus," he says, "are hypocrites accustomed, when God does not appear immediately with his aid, not only to express their disapprobation indirectly, but even to break out into open blasphemies. They fancy that

God is under obligations to them, and therefore proceed with the less hesitation, yea, with all the greater arrogance, to exalt themselves against him. On the other hand, it is a proof of true piety, when we patiently submit to the judgments of God, and as Jeremiah admonishes us by his own example, bear his anger, because we know that we have sinned (chap. viii. 14). Hypocrites are not conscious of any guilt, since they do not examine themselves, but rather make excuses and stupify their consciences, and therefore imagine that God is doing them an injury, unless he comes at once to their help."

The manifestation of this wickedness, though not its existence, was promoted by the dealings of God with the nation. The prophets before the exile had promised an infinite supply of blessings to such as should return. But the actual circumstances appeared to stand out in glaring contrast with these promises. There was no Messiah; the people of God were servants in their own land (Neh. ix. 36, 37); they were governed by heathens; and there was everywhere poverty and distress. Even to the truly pious this state of things was the cause of many temptations; but their doubts, which they overcame by faith, did not affect the righteousness of God. On the contrary, the circumstances in which they were placed seemed rather to furnish proofs of His righteousness, though they led them to despair of his grace, which they thought they had forfeited by the greatness of their sins. Compare, for example, the prayer in Nehemiah, chap. ix., which has been described as a parallel to the grievances referred to in Malachi—a comparison which is quite unwarrantable, since the fact is altogether overlooked that, although the former contains bitter complaints, they relate not to God, but to the people's own sins. In ver. 31 we read, "Nevertheless, for thy great mercies thou didst not utterly consume them, nor forsake them; for thou art a gracious and merciful God," and in ver. 33, "Howbeit thou art just in all that is brought upon us; for thou hast done right, but we have done wickedly." The

merely outwardly pious, on the contrary, could not fail to murmur against God and charge him with unfaithfulness. For according to their views of the relation, in which they stood to God, they had really suffered wrong. Since they could not perceive, that the cause of the very imperfect fulfilment of the promises was to be found in themselves, they necessarily formed wrong conceptions of God. A theodicee, with regard to sufferings, is only possible from the scriptural view of human sinfulness.

We will now give a sketch of the work from beginning to end, for the purpose of showing that the state of mind against which the prophet contends, is the same throughout, although manifested in different forms.

The first section embraces chap. i. 2-5. "I have loved you, saith the Lord;" these are the prophets' opening words, in which he points to the love of God as the foundation of the complaint which follows. "Wherein hast thou loved us ?" is the reply of the hypocrites, who thus display their character at the very outset. Mistaken notions as to the mercies of God, and ingratitude for those mercies, are distinguishing characteristics of hypocrisy. Even the greatest of all are regarded by hypocrites as a merited recompense; and the smallest, in which the humble believer rejoices as proofs of undeserved compassion, are treated by them as a kind of offence. As a proof of the love of God, the prophet appeals to the fact, that the Lord has brought Israel back into its own land, whereas the home of the kindred nation of Edom, which the Lord hates, is still lying waste. This commencement of mercy was a pledge of its continuance, if only they did not by their own sins place obstacles in the

way.

A second section extends from chap. i. 6-ii. 9. The question with regard to their guilt, in not reciprocating affection, is directed first of all to the priests. The principal reason for this was, that in the time of Malachi the priests constituted the heart of the entire life of the nation; compare chap. ii. 3, where the whole nation is addressed in them. The result in this case is a very mournful one. Instead of humbling themselves and suffering themselves to be stirred up to renewed zeal in the service of the Lord, by the sufferings inflicted upon the nation at large,

and upon their own order in particular, to which the service of the Lord afforded but a scanty means of subsistence, they do the very opposite, and in their pharisaic blindness look for the causes, not in themselves, but in God. In the blindness, which is inseparable from their self-righteousness, they imagine that, since God does not give them what is due, he cannot make any great claims upon them. Not only do they come very far short, therefore, of the fulfilment of the higher duties of their office, which the prophet expressly enforces upon them at the close, namely, to live in the fear of God, to be the mediators between God and the nation, and to bring back many from iniquity, they are no longer fit to discharge even inferior duties. The worst sacrifices, in their opinion, are good enough for the Lord. Even when they offer these, they think that they are rendering another important service to the Lord. They fancy that he cannot do without the temple and its sacrifices. The prophet shows that the outward circumstances of the priestly order are merely the reflection of its moral condition, and that the breakers of the covenant are brought into affliction now by the very same means, by which in former times those who observed the covenant were made partakers of life, prosperity, and peace. And he threatens with still greater punishment in the name of the Lord. Those who have profaned Him, must be themselves profaned. In opposition to the delusive notion, that the Lord stands in need of the temple and its service, he points to the future, when the Lord will form for himself a new and incon-ceivably large Church from the midst of the heathen, which will serve him with true sincerity, and when pure sacrifices will be offered, instead of those which are offered now and which are impure in his sight, because they are offered without faith, without love, and without fear. Compare the important passage in chap. i. 11, "for from the rising of the sun even unto the going down of the same, my name is great among the heathen, and in every place incense is offered to my name, and a pure offering; for my name is great among the heathen, saith Jehovah of Hosts." In the expression, "my name is great among the heathen," there is an allusion to ver. 6, "ye priests, who despise my name." The name of God springs out of his acts, and therefore the announcement, that the name of the Lord will become