MAYO. 1. Education should be essentially religious: 'Its end and aim should be to lead a creature, born for immortality, to that conformity to the image of God in which the glory and happiness of immortality consists. 2. It should be essentially moral-Moral instruction, to be availing, must be the purified and elevated expression of a moral life, actually pervading the scene of education. 3. It must be directed by an influence essentially parental. 4. It should be essentially organic- the development of the human faculties (moral, intellectual and physical) from within, by a process of expansion and growth; through self-~ activity and liberty. 5. The development of all the faculties should be harmonious: to preserve the equipoise within the mental, moral and physical spheres, and between the three. 6. It should be based on intuitions. 7. It should be gradual and progressive-every age has its own mental, moral and physical claims. 8. It should be free and natural, not cramped, confined and servile. 9. It should be analytical-everything taught should be reduced to its simplest elements. PAYNE. 1. The principles of education are not to be devised ab extra; they are to be sought for in human nature. 2. This nature is an organic nature-a plexus of bodily, intellectual and moral capabilities, ready for development, and struggling to develop themselves. 3. Self-development begins with the impressions received by the mind from external objects. These impressions (called sensations), when the mind becomes conscious of them, group themselves into perceptions. These are registered in the mind as conceptions or ideas, and constitute that elementary knowledge which is the basis of all knowledge. 4. All education (including instruction) must be grounded on the learner's own observation (Anschauung) at first hand-on his own personal experience. This is the true basis of all knowledge. 4 (cont.). First the reality, then the symbol;\ first the thing, then the word, not vice versâ. 5. That which the learner has gained by his own observation and which, as a part of his personal experience is incorporated with his mind, he knows and can describe or explain in his own words. His competency to do this is the measure of the accuracy of his observation, and consequently of his knowledge. 6. The education conducted by the formal educator has both a negative and a positive side. The former consists in removing impediments, so as to afford scope for the learner's self-development. The latter is to stimulate the learner to the exercise of his powers, to furnish materials and occasion for the exercise, and to superintend and maintain the action of the machinery. 7. Personal experience necessitates the advancement of the learner's mind from the near and actual, with which he is in contact, and which he can deal with himself, to the more remote; therefore from the concrete to the abstract, from particulars to generals, from the known to the unknown. This is the method of elementary education; the opposite proceeding— the usual proceeding of our traditional teaching. is the scientific method-a method suited only to the advanced learner, who, it assumes, is already trained by the elementary method. MORF. 7. The instructor must dwell upon each step long enough to ensure that the child gets a thorough grasp of, and control over, the new matter. 8. The chief aim of elementary instruction is to develop and increase the powers of the child's mind, not the acquisition of know ledge or skill. 9. With knowledge must come power, with information skill. 10. The relations between educator and pupil, and school discipline in particular, must be based on and controlled by love. 11. The individuality of the pupil must be sacred to the educator. PAYNE. 8. Practical aptness or faculty, depends more on habits gained by the assiduous oft-repeated exercise of the learner's active powers than on knowledge alone. Knowing and doing must, however, proceed together. The chief aim of all education (including instruction) is the development of the learner's powers. 9. Spontaneity and self-activity are the necessary conditions under which the mind educates itself and gains power and independence. CHAPTER XI. PESTALOZZI'S METHODS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE, IN describing the methods which Pestalozzi used in teaching the above subjects, we shall take the subjects in the order of importance and value which he appeared to attach to them. "The impression made on the senses by form and number precedes the art of speech, but the art of sense-impression and arithmetic come after the art of speech." Although he says that "whatever ideas we may have to acquire in the course of our life are all introduced through the medium of one of these departments," i.e., number, form and language; this does not mean, as it at first seems to suggest, that reading, writing and arithmetic are to be regarded as the foundations of education. Notwithstanding the fact that he says that " Upon these three fundamental points [number, form and language] all elementary instruction is to be built and it is evident, therefore, that the object of our first exertions in education must be to develop and strengthen, in that manner which is most conformable to nature, the faculties of number, of form, and of language, since upon the healthy state, as it were, of those faculties, the correctness of our perceptions essentially depends"; his experience convinced him that reading, writing and arithmetic, far from being the foundation elements of instruction, ought to be regarded as subordinate ones. "It is well done to make a child read, and write, and learn, and repeat-but it is still better to make a child think" (On Infants' Education). This apparent contradiction is easily explained: the elements of knowledge in number, form and language must first be learned, before they can be used in getting further knowledge. How are these to be learned? As we shall see, when dealing with them, they are to be learned through acquiring and developing intuitions, i.e., by means of what we now call object lessons. The "Three R's" are taught through object lessons: therefore the latter is primary, and the former secondary. As Pestalozzi puts it: "There are two ways of instructing either we go from words to things, or from things to words. Mine is the second method." I. Language-Teaching-or the Teaching of Sound through Object Lessons. Pestalozzi says: "In teaching the child language we ought to follow the same course which nature took. Nature undoubtedly began with intuition. The first simple sound by which man attempted to communicate the impression produced upon him by some object, was the expression of an intuition. . . . From this point language gradually advanced: man began to observe the characteristic features of those objects to which he had given names, and to form words to designate their proportions, their actions, and their powers. It was not until a much later period that he invented the art of modifying one and the same word according to number, time, and so on." Again: "The savage first |