4 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. als are also produced to a considerable extent. The tropical fruits are abundant. Lombardy, kingdom of, began 573; made numerous conquests till 1771, when Desiderius, their last king, was taken by Charlemagne and territories annexed to the German empire. London, formerly called Augusta, founded by the Romans, 49; walled and a palace built, 368; city repaired by Alfred, 885; burned to the ground, about 912; nearly destroyed by fire, 1077, and again in 1110; the chief magistrate in the time of William I. was called port-reeve; Richard I. ordained two bailiffs, but King John changed them to a mayor; obtained their first free charter for electing their own magistrates, 1208; gates of the city taken down, 1760; the common council ordered to wear blue silk gowns at court, September 16, 1761; practice discontinued, 1775; London bridge built about 1098. The largest and richest city in the world. Louisburg, taken by the French, July 27, 1758. Lycurgus, established his laws at Lacedæmon, B. C. 884; his institutions renounced by the Spartans, 188. Mahrattas, The, are a native Indian race which founded an empire in Central and Western India, 1674. After 1795, Scindia, Holkar, and Berar became independent; the confederacy of Mahratta states came to an end in 1818, and all the chiefs became dependants of the British Crown. Massachusetts, first settled by the English at PlyRanks first in cotton, woolen, and mouth in 1620. worsted goods, cod and mackerel fishing; second in commerce; third in manufactories, printing, and publishing; fourth in silk goods; fifth in soap and in wealth, sixth in iron and steel; ninth in agricultural implements. Its manufactured articles include leather and morocco, flour and meal, lumber and furniture, refined molasses and sugar, machinery, ship-building, animal and vegetable oils. Manufacturing and commerce chiefly engage the attention of its inhabitants. The middle and western parts are fertile. Farms are highly cultivated. Madagascar, first seen by the Portuguese, 1506; attempts at colonization were made by the English and French from 1644 to 1773. The island is at present under a native ruler, though tributary to France. Madeira Islands, discovered by the Portuguese, 1419. Madrid, built B. C. 936; occupies the site of the ancient Mantua-Carpepanorum, called Majoritium in the Middle Ages. Its importance commenced in 1563, when it was made the capital of Spain by Philip II. It was held by the French from 1808 to 1812, and here Napoleon placed his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain. Marriage, first institution of, by ceremony, ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, B. C. 1556; celebration in churches first ordained by Pope Innocent III. about 1200, before which the only ceremony was that of a man leading his bride home to his house; marriage in Lent forbidden by the Church, 364; forbidden to priests, 1015; publication of bans instituted about 1210. Maryland, first settled by the English, 1634, at St. Mary's. The chief industries are agriculture and manufacturing. Corn, wheat, and tobacco are the leading Coal is mined extensively. agricultural products. Among other commercial products are flour and meal, smelted copper, refined sugar and molasses, cotton goods, lumber and furniture, malt and distilled liquors, tobacco and cigars, oysters, fish, and vegetables, leather goods, clothing, printing and publishing. The foreign commerce of the state is carried on chiefly through the city of Baltimore, which has all the advantages of a seaport. The chief exports are tobacco, flour, canned fruits, and oysters. Maine (Pine Tree State).-Settled by French at Bristol, 1625; admitted to the Union, 1820. Ranks fifth in buckwheat and copper; eighth in hops and potatoes; eleventh in hay; twenty-first in wealth; twenty-seventh in population; thirty-third in miles of railway; thirtysixth in square miles. Industries: Extensive lumber and ship-building trade, fisheries, cotton, woolens, tanned and curried leather, boots and shoes, lime, etc. The agricultural portion of the state lies in the valley of St. John, and between the Penobscot and Kennebec Magna Charta, The, was the great charter or document, founded mainly upon earlier Saxon charters, which the English barons compelled King John to sign at Runnymede (June 15, 1215). The most important provisions are: (1) No scutage or aid shall be raised, except in the case of the king's captivity, the knighting of his eldest son, or the marriage of his eldest daughter, except by the general council of the kingdom; (2) no proceeded against other than by the legal judgment of Massacres at Alexandria of many thousand citizens Memnon, the Egyptian, invented letters, B. C. 1822. Mexico, first conquered by Spain, 1521, by Cortez; a revolution, fomented by the clergy, took place in 1810; a constitution was proclaimed in 1812, and in May, 1822, Don Augustin Iturbide was elected emperor of Mexico; he abdicated in 1823; became a federal republic in 1824; the capital. Under the patronage of Napoleon the III., in 1863, a French army invaded Mexico and occupied Maximilian of Austria became emperor of Mexico from 1864 till 1867, when he was shot and a republic reproclaimed. Minnesota (Gopher State).-First settlement, by Americans, Red River, 1812. Admitted to the Union, and hay; twelfth in miles of railway; thirteenth in 1858. Ranks fourth in wheat and barley; eighth in oats square miles; seventeenth in wealth; twenty-sixth in population. The leading industries are: 1. Agriculture; the staple productions being corn, wheat, and oats, while other cereals are largely raised. 2. Lumbering; great quantities of lumber are sawed in this state, sippi, to be sawed in other states. 3. Manufacturing; and immense rafts of logs are floated down the MissisMissouri (Pennsylvania of the West).-First settlethe principal articles being sawed lumber and flour. Ranks first in mules; third in oxen, ment, by the French, at St. Genevieve, 1764. Admitted to the Union, 1821. hogs, corn, and copper; fifth in population; sixth in iron ore, wool, milch cows, and horses; seventh in oats; eighth in wealth, wheat, and tobacco; ninth in sheep and potatoes; tenth in miles of railway; sixteenth in square miles. Agriculture is the leading occupation. Mining is extensively carried on in the section south of St. Louis. The iron resources of the state exceed those and increasing. The chief agricultural products are of any other. The manufacturing interests are large great crops of corn, wheat, rye, tobacco, hemp, and grapes. Mississippi.-First settlement made by the French at Natchez, 1716. This state ranks second in cotton; fifth in rice; fifth in mules and molasses; seventh in sugar. It is almost exclusively an agricultural state. Great quantities of rice, corn, sugar, and sweet potatoes are produced. Many tropical fruits grow in abundance. The labor is largely performed by negroes. Horses, Microscopes.-First used in Germany, 1621; with two mules, swine, and cattle, are extensively raised. glasses, invented by Drebbel, 1624; solar, invented by Lieberkuk, 1470. Milan, anciently Liguria, the seat of the Roman empire, 303; conquered by the Goths in the fifth century, who were dispossessed by the Lombards, 572; subdued by the Emperor Charlemagne, 800; the French expelled about 1525; taken by the Imperialists, 1706: recovered by France and Spain, 1743; restored to Austria, 1748; in 1 1803 the French made it the capital of the kingdom of Italy; retaken by Austria in 1814; in 1859 was incorporated with Lombardy in the kingdom of Italy. Minstrels, originally piers appointed by the Lords of Manor to divert their copyholders whilst at work; owed their origin to the gleemen or harpers of the Saxons; continued until about 1500; female harpers not uncommon in Britain, 680. Mint. First established in London as a privileged place, 1066; for the coinage of money, 1813; mint of the United States first established at Philadelphia, April 2, 1792; coinage of gold commenced July 31, 1795. Michigan (Wolverine State).- First settled by the French, at Detroit, 1650. Admitted to the Union, 1837. Ranks first in copper, lumber, and salt; second in iron ore; third in buckwheat and wool; fifth in hops and potatoes; sixth in wheat, barley, and wealth; seventh in agricultural implements; ninth in oats, population, and miles of railway, and twentieth in square miles. Agriculture, mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and commerce command the attention of the inhabitants. Large crops of wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes are produced, as also great quantities of wool, butter, and cheese. Fruit raising is extensively followed, the vaiue of the orchard products exceeds that of New Jersey or California. The copper mines of the state are the richest known, and are extensively worked. The production of sawed lumber is greater than that of any other state. The value of manufacturing exceeds $100,000,000. The fisheries form one of the secondary, yet important sources of wealth, large quantities being taken for home use and export. Montana ranks fourth in silver, and square miles; fifth in gold; fifteenth in cattle; thirty-sixth in miles of railway, and forty-fourth in population. The population of Montana, according to census of 1880, was 39, 159, but in 1884 the total vote cast for delegate to Congress was 26,969, and in 1886, 32,262. In 1890, the population numbered 132,159. First settlement, by Americans, 1852. Organized as a territory, 1864. Admitted to the Union in 1889. Mogul Empire.-First conquered by Jenghis Kahn, a Tartar prince, who died 1226; Timur Bek became great mogul by conquest, 1399; the dynasty continued in his family until the conquest of Tamerlane in the fifteenth century; Kouli Khan, the famous Sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the mogul, and since that event many of the nabobs have made themselves independent; the last sovereign, Shah Allum, died in 1806, a pensioner of England. Monkery began in Egypt and Persia; tolerably well established about 330; in Egypt alone there were 96,000 monks. St. Anthony, the first example of a monastic life, 305, established the first monastery on Mt. Colzim, near the Red Sea. Athanasius introduced monastic life into Rome, 341. Mount Vernon, memorable as the residence and the burial place of George Washington, is on the right bank of the Potomac, in Virginia, fifteen miles below Washington. In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property were saved from the auctioneer's hammer, and secured as a national possession. Moors, driven out of Spain, after they had continued there 900 years, 1620, for attempting to free themselves from the Inquisition; they were in number about 900,000. Morocco, Empire of, anciently Mauritania, first known, 1008; possessed by the Romans, B. C. 25; about 1116 Abdallah, the leader of a sect of Mohammedans, founded the dynasty of Almahides, which ended in the last sovereign's total defeat in Spain, 1212; Morocco was afterwards seized by the King of Fez, but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1550, subdued and united the three kingdoms, and formed what is called the Empire of Morocco. The present sovereign of Morocco belongs to the ninth dynasty, founded in 1648. Moscow, burned, 30,000 houses destroyed, in 1739; entered by the French, September 14, 1812, and burned by the Russians, in consequence of which the French retreated with great loss. Museum, The British, established 1753; large additions made to the building and the library of George III. given to the institution by George IV., 1827. Nantes, Edict of, passed by Henry IV., by which Protestants enjoyed toleration in France, 1598, revoked by Louis XIV., 1685; in consequence of which 50,000 French Protestants emigrated to England; they engaged largely in the manufacture of silk; some introduced the art of making crystal glasses for watches and pictures, Naples, anciently Capua and Campania, kingdom of, began 1020; given by the pope to the Comte D'Anjou, 1266; Alphonsus of Arragon united Sicily to it, and the kings have since been called king of the Two Sicilies, 1442; taken from the French and annexed to Spain, 1504; order of the Crescent founded, 1464; taken by the French, January 24, 1799; Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples in 1805, but replaced by Murat in 1808; the Austrians took possession in 1814; in 1861 the last king of Naples was expelled by Garibaldi, and the two Sicilies were merged in the kingdom of Italy. Nebraska. First settlement made by Americans. Beef, cattle, and other livestock are raised in great numbers upon the grazing sections. Corn, wheat, and other cereals, and fruit growing are carried on extensively and with great success. The cheap and fertile lands offer great inducements for settlement to immigrants. New Hampshire (Granite State).- First settlement by the English at Little Harbor, 1623. Ranks third in manufacture of cotton goods; fifteenth in potatoes; twenty-second in wealth; thirty-first in population; thirty-seventh in miles of railway; forty-first in square miles. Largely engaged in manufacturing; the abundant water power affords great advantages. Agriculture, pasturage, and drainage occupy a large number. New Mexico.-First settled by the Spaniards at Santa Fe, 1537; organized as a territory, 1850. Ranks eighth in silver; eleventh in gold; nineteenth in sheep, and twenty-second in cattle. Chief industries, mining and cattle raising. Nevada. First settled, by Americans, in 1850. Ranks second in gold; fourth in silver, and thirty-seventh in wealth. The leading industry is mining. The mines of the state yield over three fifths of all the silver produced in the United States. Stock raising is also largely followed, owing to the large amount of good pasture land. Netherlands were placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange and became a kingdom, 1815; in 1816, the Prince of Orange was elevated to the rank of King of the Netherlands, with increased territories, extending over the present kingdom of Belgium; Belgium was then erected into a kingdom, and the present limits of the kingdom of the Netherlands were defined in 1833. New England, First settlement of, made at Plymouth, November 10, 1620; states united, 1643. Newfoundland, discovered by Cabot about 1500; began to be settled by the English, 1520; in 1713 it was declared by the treaty of Utrecht to belong wholly to Great Britain. New Jersey (Jersey Blue).- First settlement by the Dutch at Bergen, 1620. Ranks first in fertilizing marl, zinc, and silk goods; fourth in iron ore; fifth in iron and steel; sixth in buckwheat, manufactories, and soap; seventh in rye, twelfth in wealth; nineteenth in population; twenty-sixth in miles of railway; fortythird in square miles. Manufactures: Molasses and sugar refining, flour, machinery, leather and leather goods, hats, caps, and clothing, woolen and cotton goods, bleaching and dyeing, glass. Industries: The commerce of the state is small, its manufactures large and various. Its shad and oyster fisheries are extensive. Mining is also a leading industry. But its chief industry is agriculture and market gardening, the state being one immense garden, the mildness of its climate being such that small fruits are very productive, and, being adjacent to the markets of New York and Philadelphia, farmers and fruit raisers find large profits from their labor. New Orleans.-First laid out by the French, 1720; battle of, January 8, 1815. New Zealand, in the South Seas, first discovered by Abel J. Tasman, 1642; visited by Pope Marcus, 336; formally taken possession of as a British colony in 1840. New York (Empire State).-First settlement by the Dutch at New York (New Amsterdam), 1614. Ranks first in value of manufactories, population, soap, printing, and publishing, hops, hay, potatoes, buckwheat, milch cows, and wealth; second in salt, silk goods, malt and distilled liquors, and barley; third in agricultural implements, iron ore, iron and steel, oats and rye; fourth in wool and miles of railway; twenty-seventh in square miles. In population, wealth, and commerce, New York is the first in the Union. The commerce extends to all parts of the world. Manufacturing is large, and constantly increasing. Agriculture is one of the chief pursuits, wheat and corn being the staple productions. The development of the salt springs of the interior is also one of the industries of the state. Its magnificent system of canals and railroads has done much to increase its domestic trade. North Carolina (Old North State).-First settlers, English, Cowan river, 1650. Ranks first in tar and turpentine; second in copper; third in peanuts and tobacco; fourth in rice; ninth in cotton; fifteenth in population; twentieth in miles of railway; twenty-third in wealth; twenty-sixth in square miles. Agriculture is the leading industry, the chief articles being corn, wheat, tobacco, sweet potatoes, oats, rice, and cotton. Vast forests furnish three times as much pitch, tar, and resin as all the other states together. There are valuable gold mines, and iron, copper, and coal abound. Normandy, erected into a dukedom, 876; ceded to France by Henry III., May 20, 1259; taken by the English in 1419, and retained until 1425; finally joined to France under Charles VII. Norway, the ancient Scandinavia, including Sweden, united with Denmark, 998; in 1319 Norway and Sweden, for a short time, became united under Magnus V.; in 1397 Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were again united, which union remained in force until 1523, when Sweden emancipated herself; Norway was annexed to Sweden, November 4, 1814, by the treaty of Kiel. Notaries Public, originally appointed by the Fathers of the Christian Church to collect the acts and memoirs of martyrs in the first century; since changed into commercial offices. Nova Scotia, charter granted, 1621; afterwards in the possession of the French, but ceded to England, 1713; peopled by England, 1749. Nova Zembla, discovered by Capt. Hugh Willoughby, 1553; has no permanent inhabitants. Oath, swearing on the Gospels, first used, 528; first administered in judicial proceedings by the Saxons about 600. Ohio was first settled by the English, at Marietta, in 1788. Ranks first in agricultural implements and wool; second in petroleum, iron, and steel; third in population, wheat, sheep, coal, malt, and distilled liquors; fourth in printing and publishing, salt, soap, and wealth; fifth in milch cows, hogs, horses, hay, tobacco, iron ore, and miles of railway. The agricultural interest is very large. Great crops of wheat, corn, oats, barley, hay, potatoes, garden and orchard products are raised; also flax, tobacco, and grapes. Coal and iron mining are extensively carried on in the eastern and southern parts, and large numbers of live stock are sent to the eastern markets. Its commerce by lake, river, canal, and railroad transportation, is very large. Olympiads, games instituted at Olympia by Pelops, in honor of Jupiter, B. C. 1307; they were revived by the Greeks about 400 years after the destruction of Troy, and continued until the reign of Theodosius the Great, when a new code of reckoning began; the first Olympiads began July 23, 776, Corabus being then the Olympic victor; the last ended about 440 B. C. Ontario is the most important province of Canada. Principal products are grain, fruit, lumber, petroleum, copper, and iron. The population of Ontario is one third of the whole Dominion. Toronto, the capital, is the manufacturing and educational center. The population of the province is largely of British descent. Oregon was first settled by the Americans in 1811. Agriculture, stock raising, and lumbering are the chief pursuits; wheat being the staple article of the former, while most of the cereals of the middle states flourish. Cutting timber from the immense pine forests of the state gives employment to great numbers of inhabitants. Orange, Title of, first in the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons, the Prince of Orange's sister, with the Count of Nassau, 1530; the Prince of Orange was applied to by England for assistance, 1688; landed at Torbay, in England, with an army, November 5, 1688; took on him the government at the invitation of the Lords; declared king of England, February 13, 1689. Organs.-First introduced into churches by Pope Vitallian I., C83; into the western churches, 826. Ostrogoths, their kingdom began in Italy, 476; ended 554. Ottoman, or Turkish Empire, founded by Othman I., in 1299, in Asia Minor, and soon extended into Europe. With the capture of Constantinople, in 1453, it succeeded to the Byzantine Empire. Paganism, finally overthrown in the Roman Empire in the reign of Theodosius between 388 and 395. Palatines.-Seven thousand families of these poor Protestants were driven by the French from their hab: tations on the banks of the Rhine, and came to England; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. Five hundred families went under the protection of the government to Ireland and the rest were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay; they finally went to Pennsylvania, where they settled, 1709. Pandects, a system of laws accidentally discovered at Amalfi, Italy, 1137. Pantheon, The, at Rome, built by Agrippa B. C. 25. Paris, made the capital of France, 510; consumed by fire, 588; barricaded to oppose the entry of the Duke of Guise, 1588; again 1688, in opposition to the regency; first parliament held, 1302; general confederation in the Champ de Mars, July 14, 1790; an armed mob forced the Tuileries and insulted the king of France, June 20, 1792; Tuileries again attacked and Swiss Guard massacred by the Populists, August 10, 1792; royal family imprisoned in the temple, August 14; massacre of the state prisoners, September 2-5, 1792; Lord Malmesbury negotiated for peace, October 28, 1796; Napoleon arrived at midnight, December 18, 1812; allied sovereigns entered, March 31, 1814; Louis XVIII. entered May 3, 1814; Napoleon returned to, from Elba, March 21, 1815; left it to meet the allied forces, May 2, 1815; capitulated to the allies, July 3, 1815; treaties of general peace signed, November 20, 1815. Pauls, St., London, built by Ethelbert, King of Kent, on the foundation of an old temple of Diana, 596; burned, 964; rebuilt and consecrated, 1240; it was 150 years building; again burned down, it was rebuilt, 1631; first stone of the present building laid, 1675; finished, 1710, at an expense of about $5,000,000. Persecution, by the Jews, the first in 33; second, 44; first general of the Christians under Nero, 64; second under Domitian, 93; third under Trajan, 107; fourth under Marcus Aurelius, 164; fifth under Severus, 202; sixth under Maximinus, 235; seventh under Decius, 250; eighth under Valerian, 257; ninth under Aurelian, 272; tenth under Diocletian, 302; eleventh by the Arians under Constantius, 337; twelfth under Julian the Apostate, 361; Luther's followers persecuted in Franconia, 1525. The Protestants persecuted in England, 1556; in France, 1723. Persian Empire, began under Cyrus after his conquest of Media, B. C. 536; ended in the conquest of Darius, about 330; a new empire called the Parthian was founded upon its ruins by the Persians under Arbaces, B. C. 250, but took its original name under Artaxerxes, 229; the Saracens, however, A. D. 651, put an end to that empire and Persia became a prey to the Tartars, and the province of Hindustan, until the emperor Kouli Kahn raised it to a powerful kingdom; emperor assassinated by his relatives, 1747. Pennsylvania (Keystone State).- First settlement, English, Philadelphia, 1682. Ranks first in rye, iron and steel, petroleum, and coal; second in wealth, population, manufactories, buckwheat, potatoes, printing, and publishing; third in miles of railway, milch cows, hay, soap; fourth in oats and tobacco; fifth in silk goods, wool, malt and distilled liquors; sixth in salt, copper, and agricultural implements; eighth in horses and sheep; thirtieth in square miles. Pennsylvania ranks next to New York in wealth, population, and manufactures. Industries: The people are largely engaged in agriculture, mining, and manufactures; wheat, corn, orchard fruits, potatoes, butter, and wool, are the chief products. The farms are generally large and well conducted. The manufactures are very extensive, and comprise a great variety of articles; fron, cotton, and woolen goods being the leading articles. In the production of coal and iron Pennsylvania surpasses all other states. Pharsalia, Battle of, where Pompey was defeated by Cæsar, B. C. 47. Philippi, Battle of, which terminated in the Roman Republic, B. C. 41. Phoenicians, by order of Pharaoh Necho, sailed from the Red Sea, round Africa, and returned by the Mediterranean, B. C. 607. Picts.-First mentioned in history, 284; kingdom of, began in Scotland, 823; extirpated by the Scots, 840; Pict's wall between England and Scotland built, 123. Plague.-Almost the whole world visited by one, B. C. 767; in Rome, which carried off 10,000 persons in a day, 78 A. D.; in England, that carried off 34,000, 772; in Scotland, wherein 40,000 died, 954; in England, 1247; again, 1347; in Germany, which cut off 90,000 people, 1348; in Paris and England, when 57,000 died in England, 1362; again in England, 30,000 killed in London, 1407; at Constantinople, when 200,000 persons died, 1611; at Lyons, where 60,000 died, 1632; again at London, where 68,000 were destroyed, 1665; at Marseilles, fatal to 18,000 persons, 1720; at Bassora, in Persia, when 80,000 persons died, 1773. Poet Laureate.-The first mention of one is in the reign of Edward IV., though the present office under this title is derived from the "King's Versifier," of whom we hear in 1251. an Indian village called Stadacona. In July, 1608, Champlain founded the city, giving it its present name. Reformation, The, first set on foot by John Wycliffe, 1370; began in England by Henry VIII. casting off the Pope's supremacy and introducing the Protestant religion, 1534; completed by Edward VI., 1547. Revolution, in Great Britain, took place through the Poictiers, Battle of, between the French and English, Prince of Orange taking possession of the throne, Noin which the former were defeated, September 19, 1356. vember 5, 1688; in France, began 1789; in the United Poland, made a duchy, 694; kingdom of began, under States, July 4, 1776; in Sweden, in 1772; second French Boleslaus, 999; Red Russia added to it, 1059; Pomerania revolution, July, 1830. united with it, 1465; embraced Christianity, 965; seized Rhodes.- An island of the Turks, peopled from and divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, 1773; Crete, B. C. 916; the republic completed, 480; the city annexed to Russia, 1815; revolution commenced at War-built, 432; taken by the Saracens and the Colossus sold, 652; taken from the Turks, 1308; retaken by them from saw, November 29, 1830. the Knights of Jerusalem, 1523; almost destroyed by an inundation, B. C. 314; Hipparchus began his astronomical observations here, 167. Rhode Island.-First settlement made by the Eng Pope, Title of, formerly given to all bishops; but Boniface III., 606, influenced the emperor Phocas to confine it to the Bishops of Rome; Hygenus was the first Bishop of Rome that took the title, 138; pope's suprem-lish at Providence, 1636. Ranks second in cotton, flax, acy over the Christian church, first established by Boniface III, 607; John XIX., a layman made pope, 1024; first pope that kept an army was Leo IX., 1054; pope Gregory obliged Henry IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days, in the depth of winter, barefooted, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077; the pope's authority first introduced into England, 1079; abrogated by Parliament, 1534: the word pope struck out of all English books, 1541. Portugal, formerly called Lusitania, with the rest of Spain, subject to the Moors, 713; held by the Moors until the end of the eleventh century; Portuguese monarchy established, 1139; first conquest abroad made in 1415, upon the discovery of the Island of Madeira; in 1500 Brazil was discovered by Cabral, which was followed by the establishment of a colony; taken by the Spaniards, 1580; revolted from Spain, and the Duke of Braganza sat on the throne under Philip IV. of Spain, and the III. of Portugal, 1640; in the latter year, the Duke of Braganza expelled the Spaniards, and ascended the throne under the title of John IV.; invaded by France in 1807, when the royal family went to Brazil; from 1827 to 1833 the throne was usurped by Don Miguel. The erection of Brazil into an independent empire in 1826, robbed Portugal of her richest possession. Post, method of carrying letters invented by the University of Paris about 1470; general post office, established in England, 1643. Potatoes. First introduced into England from America by Sir Francis Drake, 1586; introduced into Ireland, 1610. Protestants, Name of, began from the Diet of Spires, when several of the German states protested against a decree of the Diet to support the doctrine of the Church of Rome, April 19, 1530. Prussia, anciently possessed by the Venedi, B. C. 320; the Venedi were conquered by Borussi who inhabited the Riphæan Mountains; whence the country was called Borussia or Prussia, which was subdued by the Mercian knights, sent by the Emperor Frederick II., 1215; revolted to Jagello, King of Poland, 1219; the grand master of the Teutonic order conquered the Poles and kept possession till 1700, when he was made a king. Public Houses, power of licensing them, first granted to Sir Giles Montesson and Sir Francis Michel, 1621. Punic Wars, First, began B. C. 264, lasted twentythree years; second, began 218, and ended 200; third, be gan 150. and linen goods; twentieth in wealth. The state is largely engaged in manufacturing. It has considerable commerce. Farming is carried on to some extent; the chief productions are grain, fruit, butter, and cheese. Romans.- First engaged in naval affairs and defeated the Carthaginians, B. C. 260; first crossed the Po, pursuing the Gauls, who had entered Italy, 223; defeated by Hannibal at Cannæ, 216; commenced the auxiliary war against Philip in Epirus, which was continued at intervals, 216; subdued Spain and Sparta, 194; defeated Antiochus at Thermopyla, 194; made war against the Achæans, 147; destroyed Carthage, 146; 80,000 defeated on the banks of the Rhone by the Cimbri and Teutones, 105; Cyrene left them by Ptolemy Apion, 97: first invaded England, B. C. 54; quitted Britain, 426. Rome, built by Romulus, B. C. 753; republican government established, 509; first alliance between Rome and Carthage, 508; burned by the Gauls, 390; first coining of silver, 269; first divorce known, 235; surgery introduced, 219; gold first coined, 206; Asiatic luxury first introduced by the army, from the spoils of Antiochus, 190 first library created with books obtained from Macedonia, 168; philosophers and rhetoricians banished, 161; sumptuary law, limiting the expenses of eating and drinking, 110; set on fire by Nero, A. D. 64; Capitol and Pantheon destroyed by fire, 80. Russia, anciently Sarmatia, was inhabited by the Scythians; came into renown in 864, when the natives attempted to take Constantinople. The foundation of the Russian empire was laid by the Rus or Varangians, a body of Scandinavians led by Rurick, at Novgorod, about 862; in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, Russia was tributary to the Mongols; the country was consolidated and extended under Ivan the Great, and Ivan the Terrible, 1462-1584. Peter the Great was the most distinguished ruler of Russia, 1672-1725. Important events of more recent times were: The dismemberment of Poland, of which the greater part became Russian; the wars of Napoleon and the burning of Moscow, 1812; the Crimean war, 1853-55; the vast ininces, 1858-73; the abolition of serfdom, 1851; the sale of crease in area by war and treaty of the Asiatic provAlaska to the United States, 1867; the Turko-Russian war, 1877-78. Rubicon, The, is a river of Italy, flowing into the Gaul and Italy proper. The passage of this river by Adriatic, which formed the boundary between Cisalpine Julius Cæsar was necessarily the signal for civil war, the issue of which could not be foreseen, as Roman gen an army. Quakers, founded by George Fox, 1664; sixty trans-erals were forbidden to cross this river at the head of ported from England to America by order of Council, 1664; their affirmation adopted by Act of Parliament for an oath, 1696. a place called Rye House on his way to Newmarket, was Rye House Plot, a plot to assassinate Charles II. at prevented by the king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened his departure eight days before the plot was to take place; discovered June 12, 1868. Quebec, a province of Canada, was originally settled by the French, and the present population is largely composed of descendants of the Voyagers. The capital, Quebec, is the oldest city in the Dominion. Its fortifications were at one time considered next to Gibraltar, Sacred War, first, concerning the temple of Delphi, the strongest in the world. Nevertheless, the fortress B. C. 448; second war, on Delphi being attacked by the was captured by General Wolfe; taken by the English, Phocians, 356; war finished by Philip taking all the December 13, 1758; unsuccessful attack on, by the Ameri-cities of the Phocians, 348. cans, under General Montgomery, December 31, 1775. St. Helena, first taken possession of by the English, The metropolis, Montreal, is noted for its churches. 1600; taken by the Dutch, 1673; retaken by the English Ship building is the chief manufacturing industry. the same year; celebrated as the place of exile of NapoThere are also manufactures of iron castings, machin-leon Bonaparte, 1815, where he died May 5, 1821. ery, cutlery, nails, leather, musical instruments, boots and shoes, paper, India rubber goods, tobacco and steel. The staple of export is timber. Quebec was first visited by Jacques Cartier in 1535. It then consisted of Saints, tutelar, St. George of England, St. Andrew of Scotland, St. Patrick of Ireland, St. David of Wales, St. Dennis of France, St. James of Spain. Saracens, conquered by Spain, 713; 70,000 slain in HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. battle by Ramirus,king of Spain, 844; empire of, ended Savoy.-Part of Gallia, Narbonensis, submitted to the Romans, B. C. 118; the Alemanni seized it in 395; the Franks, 496; it shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, Emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert with the title of earl; erected into a duchy, Sabines, The, were an important tribe of ancient Italy, allied to the Latins, Samnites, etc. Famous in Roman history as the people whose daughters were treacherously seized by the Romans at the Consualia or games in honor of the god Consus. A treaty of peace was concluded with the Sabines, 750 B. C. After frequent wars, the Sabines were finally defeated, 449 B. C., by M. Horatius, and were incorporated with Rome in the third century B. C. Salic Law, The, was the code of the Salian Franks, introduced into France (Gaul) by the Franks. It contained four hundred articles, chiefly concerning debt, theft, murder, and battery, the penalty in every case being a fine. The most famous article of the code is Title lxii. 6, according to which only males could succeed to the Salic land or lod, i. e. to the lands given for military service. In 1316, at the death of Louis le Hutin, the law was extended to the crown, and continued to be observed to the end of the monarchy. San Marino, in Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, is the oldest republic in the world. It is, next to Monaco, the smallest state in Europe. The exact date of the establishment of this republic is not known, but according to tradition it was in the fourth century, by Marinus, a Dalmatian hermit, and has ever since remained independent. It is mountainons and contains four or five villages. The word "liberty" is inscribed on its Capitol. St. James's Palace is a large, inelegant brick structure, fronting towards Pall Mall. Originally a hospital dedicated to St. James, it was reconstructed and made a manor by Henry VIII., who also annexed to it a park. Here Queen Mary died, 1558; Charles I. slept here the When night before his execution; and here Charles II., the Old Pretender, and George IV. were born. Whitehall was burned, in 1697, St. James became the regular London residence of the British sovereigns, and it continued to be so till Queen Victoria's time. The Court of St. James is a frequent designation of the British Court. St. James Park lies southward from the Palace, and extends over fifty-eight acres. Saxons, The ancient, were pirates, and inhabited three small islands at the month of the Elbe, and some part of the shores of the Baltic; were invited to England, A. D. 449, by the Britons. Scotland, anciently Caledonia. History began, B. C. 328, when Fergus I. was sent over by the people of Ireland; accepted the Christian faith about 203; united under one monarchy by Kenneth II. and called Scotland, 838; divided into baronies, 1032; invaded by the King of Norway, near Loch Lomond, 1263; on the death of Alexander III. was disputed by twelve candidates, who submitted their claims to the arbitration of Edward I. of England, 1285, which gave him an opportunity to conquer it; recovered by the Scots, 1314; first General Assembly of the church held, December 20, 1560; United with England under the reign of James VI. of Scotland and James I. of England. Sealing of Writings.- First introduced into England, 1085. Sicily. First colonized from Italy, B. C. 1294; usurped by Agathocles, 317; Servile war began and continued three years, 135. Slave Trade, Abolition of, in England proposed in Parliament, 1789; abolished, 1807; abolished by France, Spain, and Holland, 1817; treaty concluded between Great Britain and Brazil for the abolition of, 1826. The importation of slaves into the United States prohibited after January 1, 1808; emancipation proclamation issued, 1863. Smyrna, built by the people of Cuma, B. C. 1050; destroyed by an earthquake, 1040 A. D., and again, 1688; the chief commercial emporium of West Asia. South Carolina (Palmetto State).-First settlers, English, Ashley river, 1670. Ranks first in phosphates and rice; fifth in cotton; twentieth in population; twenty-eighth in miles of railway; thirtieth in wealth; thirty-seventh in square miles. Agriculture is the prin "Sea Island Cotton" is of Sparta, built by Lacedæmon, B. C. 1490; kingdom of Straits of Babelmandeb, The, the passage from the Tarpeian Rock, The, was so called from Tarpeia, Tea.- First brought into Europe by the Dutch East Texas (Lone Star State).-First settlement by the Spaniards, at San Antonio, 1692. Admitted to the Union, 1845. Ranks first in cattle and cotton and square miles; second in sugar, sheep, mules, and horses; sixth in miles of railway; seventh in milch cows; eighth in rice and hogs; eleventh in population; nineteenth in |