shall be free from his debts, the property must be inventoried and recorded within six months after marriage or subsequent acquirement of the property. The wife may sell and convey all real estate inherited by her the same as if she were unmarried; but her husband must join in all sales, transfers, and conveyances of her property, both real and personal. She is entitled to dower in a life estate in one third of all the real estate of which her husband was seized and possessed at his death or at any time during his life, unless she has relinquished the same; also an absolute one third of his personalty.

Georgia-Married women retain as a separate estate all property in their possession at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired and are not liable for any debts, defaults, or contracts of the husband. By consent of her husband advertised for four weeks she may become a free trader, in which event she is liable the same as if unmarried. The wife may not bind her estate by any contract of suretyship, either in behalf of her husband or any other person. The widow takes dower in one third of all the lands of which her husband was seized at his death; and wife and children, after the husband's death, are entitled to one year's support from his property, all other claims yielding to this.

Idaho.-All property, both real and personal, owned at marriage or afterwards acquired, by either wife or husband, remains a separate estate. All property acquired after marriage is held in common. Separate property of the wife should be inventoried with the county recorder; the husband has control of it during marriage, but cannot create a lien or encumbrance unless joined by the wife, who is examined separately. If the husband mismanages, or commits waste, the District Court may, on application of the wife, appoint a trustee to manage her separate property. Upon the death of husband or wife, half the common property goes to survivor; if no direct descendants, all goes to survivor.

Illinois.-Married women may own in their own right realty and personalty, may sue and be sued, contract and incur liabilities, the same as if unmarried; but they may not enter into or carry on any partnership business without consent of the husband, unless abandoned by him or he is incapable of giving assent. Beyond the necessaries, the husband is not liable for debts of the wife, except in cases where he would be jointly liable if the marriage did not exist. The estate of both is liable for family expenses, but the wife's separate earnings are her own. A surviving wife or husband takes one third of all the realty of the deceased, unless relinquished in due form. The husband and wife are put upon the same footing as to dower, and the estate of curtesy is abolished.

Indiana.-Married women retain all realty and personalty owned by them at marriage, or afterwards acquired, and are not liable for the husband's debts. The husband is liable for debts of the wife contracted before marriage only to the extent of the personal property he may receive from or through her, or derive from sale or rent of her lands. She may sell personal property, but she may not convey or encumber her real estate unless the husband joins. Suits against her separate estate should be brought in the name of both. A widow takes one third of her deceased husband's real estate in fee simple, free from all demands of creditors, where the estate does not exceed $10,000; where the estate is over $10,000 and under $20,000, she takes one fourth; and one fifth if it exceeds $20,000. She also takes one third of the personalty after payment of debts, and in all cases takes $500, without accounting, and may occupy the dwelling and forty acres of land for one year, rent free.

Iowa-Married women may own in their own right real and personal property acquired by descent, gift, or purchase, may sell, convey, and devise the same, may sue and be sued, make contracts and buy goods in their own name. Wife or husband are not liable for the debts of the other before marriage, or for separate debts incurred afterwards. The wife's earnings are her own, and her note is good against her own estate. Women attain majority at eighteen, or earlier, upon marriage; a female of fourteen may marry. The surviving wife or husband is entitled to one third of the real estate of the deceased, free from all claims of creditors. If they leave no children, survivor takes one half, parents the other half.

Kansas.-Married women have the same property rights as men, and may make contracts, carry on business, sue and be sued, and sell or convey real estate pre

cisely as their husbands; their earnings or profits are their own. A note or indorsement made by a married woman will bind her property the same as if unmarried. Homestead is absolute property of widow and children, and neither wife nor husband may bequeath more than half their property without written consent of the other. If either die intestate and without children, the entire property goes to the survivor. Kentucky.-Married women may hold real or personal property as a separate estate free from the control of the husband or liability for his debts. By petition to the Circuit Court, in which the husband must join, she may acquire the right to transact business in her own name. Unless dower be barred, forfeited, or relinquished, she takes one third of the real estate and one half of the personal property.

Louisiana.-Married women may hold and control both real and personal property owned at time of marriage; all property or revenues of separate property acquired by either husband or wife after marriage is held in common, and is divided equally between them at dissolution of the marriage either by death or divorce. The wife may carry on a separate business, but her husband will be bound by her contracts, so long as the community of property exists; she cannot sue without the concurrence of her husband, and she cannot bind herself or her property for his debts. There is no right of dower to the wife.

Maine. A married woman holds real and personal property, acquired in any way except from the husband, the same as if single. She may make contracts, sue and be sued, and do business in her own name; and her property may be taken to satisfy judgments against her. Her property is liable only for her own debts. She joins husband in a deed selling his property to relinquish dower. He joins with her in selling hers only when such property comes from him. A wife, being abandoned by her husband, may be allowed to take and use his personal property. Dower, life estate in one third of all husband's real property owned during coverture; one half if no children. He has same interest in deceased wife's estate.

Maryland.-Property acquired by a married woman is her own, controlled by herself, and is free from her husband's debts. She conveys by joint deed with the husband, but devises and bequeaths the same as if single. She may be sued with her husband on joint contracts made by them, and the property of both is equally liable. Dower one third, if they have children; one half, if none.

Massachusetts.-The property of a married woman is managed by herself, and is not liable for her husband's debts. She may make contracts, sue and be sued, and do business in her own name, provided a certificate is filed by her or her husband in the office of the town clerk. Contracts and conveyances between husband and wife are not allowed. Her conveyances of real estate are subject to husband's tenancy by curtesy. A wife cannot make a will affecting her husband's right to one half of the personal property or his tenancy by curtesy in her real estate, without his written consent. Dower as by common law.

Michigan.-Married women own and control property the same as if single. A wife may do business in her own name and make contracts, even with her hus band. Her separate property is liable for wrongs committed by her. Widow has dower, but there is for the surviving husband no right of tenancy by curtesy,

Minnesota.-A married woman holds property in her own name. She may make contracts, and her property is liable only for her own debts. She cannot sell or convey real estate further than a mortgage for purchase-money or a three years' lease, without her husband joining her. Contracts between husband and wife are void. The surviving husband or wife keeps the homestead for life.

Mississippi.-A married woman holds property acquired in any manner, and the revenues therefrom, for her own use and free from control or liability of her husband. She may convey and encumber the same as if single, but husband joins in conveyance. She may devise and bequeath. Deed from husband to wife is void as to creditors at time of making it. A wife may not encumber her estate by mortgage or otherwise for her husband's debts; she may do business on her own ac count the same as if single, and is then liable for her contracts, housekeeping and family expenses. joins her husband in conveyance of homestead, but not in that of his other property. Dower in property of which the husband dies seized.

She

Missouri. A married woman controls her own property, and holds it through a trustee, free from liability for her husband's debts. She may make contracts, sigh notes, and do business in her own name. She may make a will. She joins her husband in his conveyances to release dower. Her dower is one third for life of all lands owned by husband.

Montana.—A list of married woman's property filed and recorded saves it from being liable for the husband's debts, except necessaries for herself and children under eighteen. A married woman may become a sole trader by recording her intention. If she invests more than $10,000 in business she must make oath that the surplus did not come from her husband. The husband is not liable for debts contracted by her in business. She is also responsible for the maintenance of her children. A surviving husband or wife takes one half of deceased's property, if no children; one third if there

are.

Nebraska.-A married woman holds her separate property free from the disposal of her husband and from liability for his debts. She may bargain, sell, make contracts, do business, sue and be sued, all so far as her separate estate may warrant; but she cannot become surety for another, not even being allowed to bind herself for her husband's debts. Property coming to the wife from the husband is not privileged as her separate property. Dower, use for life of one third of real estate owned by husband during coverture. Nevada.-The separate property of a married woman which is controlled by herself is such as she may have owned before marriage or acquired afterwards by gift, devise, or descent. All property acquired otherwise, by either husband or wife, is common property, and under the absolute control of the husband. On the death of the husband the widow receives one half of the common property.

New Hampshire.-A married woman holds property owned before marriage or acquired afterwards, except what may come from the husband, for her own use. She may sell, convey and encumber, devise and bequeath, do business, give notes, sue and be sued. Her contracts are binding, excepting that there can be no contracts or conveyances between husband and wife, nor can the wife become security for her husband. Wife is entitled to dower.

New Jersey.-The property owned before marriage, and such as she may acquire afterwards by gift, descent, or bequest, is the sole property of a married woman and is not liable for the husband's debts. She may make contracts, but cannot sell or encumber her real estate without consent of husband. She cannot indorse notes or become security. She joins husband in his conveyances and mortgages. Dower and curtesy.

New Mexico.-The separate property of a married woman is what she owned previous to marriage, or what she may inherit. All that she acquires afterwards, and the revenues of her separate estate, go into the common property. The husband has control and management of her separate estate and the common property. There is no dower, but on decease of a husband the wife's private property is first deducted; then she receives one half of the common property, after all debts are paid. If there be no children she has a right to all the common property.

New York.-Married women may have real and personal property, buy and sell, and do business in their own names. A married woman is liable for debts contracted in her own trade or business, or when an agreement or contract has been made for the benefit of her separate property, when, by the terms of such instrument, her separate property is to be charged with the liability. Dower.

North Carolina.-A married woman's separate property is not liable for her husband's debts. She may devise and bequeath, but must have husband's consent to convey. Unless she be a free trader, she can make no contract other than for personal or family necessities or for payment of ante-nuptial debts, without the consent of her husband. She becomes a free trader, the husband assenting, by filing her intention. Common law dower and one year's subsistence.

Ohio. The property of a married woman is not liable for her husband's debts; beyond a three years' lease or a contract for the improvement of her real estate, she cannot sell or encumber it without the consent of her husband. If a married woman engages in trade, her separate property is liable for the debts she may then contract, and she may sue and be sued the same as if single. A deserted wife must procure an order from

court, by which she shall have all property rights as a femme sole. Dower in a.l real estate owned by husband during coverture. Oklahoma. Neither husband nor wife has any interest in the property of the other. Either may enter into any engagement or transaction with the other, or with any other person, respecting property which either might, if married, subject, between them, to rules which control the actions of persons occupying confidential relations. The wife may, without consent of husband, convey her separate property. Woman retains the same legal existence and personality after marriage as before, and receives the same protection of her rights as does her husband. She may hold and transfer real and personal property; may buy and sell goods, give notes or other obligations, and sue and be sued, same as if unmarried.

Oregon.-A married woman holds her property free from the control or debts of her husband. She may make contracts, buy and sell, and give notes, and her own property will be liable. The husband joins in her conveyances. She may make a will, but it must not interfere with her husband's rights of curtesy.

Pennsylvania.-The property of a married woman is held as her separate estate, but is chargeable for family necessaries ordered by her. A wife cannot make a contract or conveyance without her husband joining her. By obtaining leave from the court she may have the benefit of her own earnings. She may make a will, saving the husband's right by curtesy. She may deposit money in bank and write checks against it in her own name. Dower, one third of all real estate owned by. husband during coverture.

Rhode Island.-A married woman's property is held by trustees for her separate use free from her husband's debts. She cannot make contracts or do business. She may make a will subject to husband's right by curtesy. South Carolina.-The property of a married woman cannot be seized for her husband's debts. A married woman can bequeath, devise, and encumber her separate property. She can buy in her own name, and have conveyances made to her, and make contracts, the same as if she were single. A gift from husband to wife is not good against a creditor's claim. Dower rights. Tennessee.-A married woman has her separate property free from the husband's control and from liability for his debts. She may encumber, convey, or devise her separate property without being joined by her husband in the deed. Widow has dower in one third of husband's real estate, and a child's share in his personalty. The husband dying intestate, leaving no heirs, the wife inherits all his property.

Texas. The property owned by husband or wife before marriage, and what either may acquire afterwards, by gift, devise, or descent, is community property. The husband controls the common property and the wife's separate estate. The common property is liable for the debts of either, and the husband may dispose of it. At the death of either, the survivor takes one half and the children the other half of the common property. The husband joins wife in conveyance of her separate property. She joins him in conveyance of homestead. A married woman cannot do business in her own name, but she may become security for her husband by mortgaging her separate estate.

Utah.-A married woman's separate property is held, managed, controlled, and disposed of by herself. A wife may carry on business, sue and be sued, give notes and make contracts the same as if single.

Vermont.-The property of a married woman is held separate, and is not liable for her husband's debts. In conveyance of the wife's real estate the husband must join in deed. A married woman may make a will. Widow has dower in one third the real estate of which the husband died seized.

Virginia. - A married woman holds the property owned by her previous to marriage, and what she may afterwards acquire, as sole trader, free from the control of her husband, and from liability for his debts. She may make a will subject to husband's rights by curtesy. Common law dower.

West Virginia.-The property of a married woman, however acquired, except from the husband, is held for her sole and separate use. Husband must join in conveyances of real estate. Dower.

Washington.-The property owned before marriage by husband or wife, and all acquired afterwards by gift, devise, or descent to either, is separate property. All otherwise acquired is common property, subject to control of the husband. He also controls the separate

property of the wife, but cannot sell or convey it without her joining in the deed. To save the separate prop erty of the wife from attachment for husband's debts, there must be an inventory of it on record.

Wisconsin. A married woman has all property rights the same as if single. She may buy and sell, lend and borrow, make conveyances, and have real estate conveyed to her, and all such business may be transacted between her and her husband as between strangers. She may sue alone, but in being sued she must be joined husband's realty held during the marriage. Husband

to husband. Dower, life.interest in one third of all

has wife's realty for life.

Wyoming.-A married woman may carry on business, make contracts, keep her own earnings, hold property, real or personal, receive the rents in her own name, sue and be sued, make a will, free from any control or interference of her husband, the same as if she were single. Her property is not liable for the debts of her husband. Women in this State have the right to vote and hold office.

Canada.-In the provinces of the Dominion, generally, a married woman nolds all her property and earnings, free from the control of her husband. It is liable for her debts before marriage, and her husband is not. She may manage it and bequeath it. She is entitled to dower, but there is no tenancy by curtesy. In the province of Quebec the law is modified by the French law. There all the personal property and gains of both parties are put together, and form the community property, which the husband administers. Each can bequeath only his or her interest, and the heirs of each inherit the interest of each.

THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

The supreme legislative power of the British Empire is by its Constitution given to Parliament. Parliament is summoned by the writ of the sovereign issued out of Chancery, by advice of the Privy Council, at least thirty-five days previous to its assembling. On a vacancy occurring in the House of Commons whilst Parliament is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker. It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in annual session extending from the middle of February to about the end of August. Every session must end with a prorogation, and by it all Bills which have not been passed during the session fall to the ground. The royal proclamation which summons Parliament in order to proceed to business must be issued fourteen days before the time of meeting. A dissolution is the civil death of Parliament; it may occur by the will of the sovereign, or, as is most usual, during the recess, by proclamation, or finally by lapse of time, the statutory limit of the duration of the existence of any Parliament being seven years. Formerly, on the demise of the sovereign, Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof; but this was altered in the reign of William III., to the effect of postponing the dissolution till six months after the accession of the new sovereign, while the Reform Act of 1867 settled that the Parliament in being at any future demise of the Crown shall not be determined by such demise.'

The present form of Parliament, as divided

into two Houses of Legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the middle of the fourteenth century.

The House of Lords consists of peers who hold their seats (1) by hereditary right; (2) by creation of the sovereign; (3) by virtue of office-English bishops; (4) by election for life-Irish peers; (5) by election for duration of Parliament-Scottish peers.

The number of names on the "Roll" was 401 in 1830; 457 in 1840; 448 in 1850; 458 in 1860; 503 in 1877; and 586 in 1898. About two thirds of the hereditary peerages were created in the present century. Excluding the royal and ecclesiastical peerages, the 4 oldest existing peerages in the House of Lords date from the latter part of the thirteenth century, while 5 go back to the fourteenth and 7 to the fifteenth century. There are besides 8 peeresses of the United Kingdom in their own right, and 2 Scotch peeresses, and 18 Scotch and 62 Irish peers who are not peers of Parliament.

The House of Commons has consisted, since 49 Hen. III., of knights of the shire, or representatives of counties; of citizens, or representatives of cities; and of burgesses, or representatives of boroughs, all of whom vote together. To the House of Commons, in the reign of Edward I., 37 counties and 166 boroughs each returned two representatives; but at the accession of Henry VIII., the total number of constituencies was only 147. The additions from Edward VI. to Charles II. were almost entirely of borough members. In the fourth Parliament of Charles I., the number of places in England and Wales for which returns were made, exclusive of counties, amounted to 210; and in the time of the Stuarts, the total number of members of the House of Commons was about 500. At the union of the English and Scottish Parliaments in 1707, 45 representatives of Scotland were added; and at the union of the British and Irish Parliaments in 1801, 100 representatives of Ireland. The average number of members was then about 650.

By the Reform Bill of 1832, the number of English county constituencies was increased from 52 to 82; 56 boroughs, containing a population of less than 2,000 each, were totally disfranchised, and 31 other boroughs, of less than 4,000 each, were required to send one representative instead of two. On the other hand, 22 new boroughs acquired the right to return two members, and 24 to return one member. In Scotland the town members were increased from 15 to 23-making 53 in all, while the Irish representatives were increased from 100 to 103.

The next great change in the constituency of the House of Commons, was made by the Reform Bill of 1867-68. By this Act England and Wales were allotted 493 members and Scotland 60, while the number for Ireland remained unaltered, and household suffrage was conferred on boroughs in England and Scotland. A still greater reform was effected by the Representation of the People Act, 1884, and the Redistribution of Seats Act, 1885. The former introduced a "service franchise,' extending to householders and lodgers in counties the suffrages which in 1867 had been conferred upon householders and lodgers in boroughs, and placed the three Kingdoms on a footing of equality as regards electoral qualifications; while the latter made a new division of the United Kingdom into county and borough constituencies, and raised the total number of members to 670, England receiving 6 new members, and Scotland 12.

All elections for members of Parliament must be by secret vote by ballot, an Act being passed annually to this effect.

No one under twenty-one years of age can be a member of Parliament. All clergymen of the Church of England, ministers of the Church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members; all Government contractors, and all sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act, are disqualified both from voting and from sitting as members. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to the House of Commons, but non-representative Irish peers are eligible.

The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is vested nominally in the Crown; but practically in a committee of Ministers, commonly called the Cabinet, whose existence is dependent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons.

The member of the Cabinet who fills the position of First Lord of the Treasury is, as a rule, the chief of the Ministry. It is on the Premier's recommendation that his colleagues are appointed; and he dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown.

The Cabinet officers are as follows:

Secretary of State for India.
First Lord of the Admiralty.
President of the Local Government Board.
President of the Board of Trade.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
Lord Chancellor of Ireland.
Secretary for Scotland.

First Commissioner of Works.
President of the Board of Agriculture.

Local Government.-England and Wales.-In each county the Crown is represented by a Lord Lieutenant, records. He usually nominates persons whom he conwho is generally also custos rotulorum, or keeper of the siders fit and proper persons to be justices of the peace for his county, to be appointed by the Lord Chancellor. His duties, however, are almost nominal. There is also a sheriff, who represents the executive of the Crown, an appointed and paid by the County Councils, and other under-sheriff, a clerk of the peace, coroners, who are officers. The licensing of persons to sell intoxicating except that which deals with some of the graver ofliquors, and the administration of the criminal lawfenses-is in the hands of the magistrates. For the divided into sixty-one administrative counties, includpurposes of local government, England and Wales are ing the county of London, which differ slightly in area from the geographical counties.

A

For each administrative county there is a popularlyelected Council, called a County Council, who co-opt a prescribed number of aldermen, either from their own body or from outside it. Aldermen are elected for six years, half of them retiring every third year. councilor is elected for three years. The jurisdiction of the County Councils extend to (1) making of county and police rates; (2) borrowing money; (3) superhalls and other buildings; (5) licensing of houses for vision of county treasurer; (4) management of county music and dancing, and of race courses; (6) maintenance tenance of reformatory and industrial schools; (8) manand management of pauper lunatic asylums; (7) mainagement of bridges and main roads; (9) regulation of trol of officers paid out of the county rate; (11) coroner's fees of inspectors, analysts, and other officers; (10) consalary, fees, and district; (12) Parliamentary polling animals, and various other matters. The control of the districts and registration; (13) contagious diseases of county police is vested in a standing joint committee, composed of an equal number of magistrates and members of the County Council. The London police are, however, under the control of the Home Secretary. the County of London, are subdivided into County The administrative counties, with the exception of Districts," which are either Urban or, Rural, as the comprises a town or a small area more or less closely case may be. Generally speaking, an urban district populated, and a rural district takes in several country parishes. Women may be elected to District Councils, but may not sit on County Councils; and the chairman of a District Council is, unless a woman, a magistrate Councils administer the Public Health and Highway for the county by virtue of his office. The District Acts, and also exercise some powers formerly exercised by the justices out of session.

Foreign Affairs.

Lord President of the Council.

Lord High Chancellor.

Lord Privy Seal.

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.

First Lord of the Treasury.

Secretary of State for the Home Department.
Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Secretary of State for the Colonies.
Secretary of State for War.

In every civil parish in a "rural district" there is a Parish Meeting, at which every parochial elector may attend and vote. In such parishes of over 300 inhabitants there is in addition a Parish Council. To these latter bodies has been transferred all the civil powers of the old Vestries, including the election of overseers, allotments, and other public matters. Where there is no Parish Council some of these powers, including the appointment of the overseers, are exercised by the Parish Meeting. Urban District Councils can, by petitioning the Local Government Board-which is the supreme Local Government authority-obtain part or all of the powers of a Parish Council. Only Parish Meetings may have power to adopt the Public Libraries Acts, the Baths and Washhouses Acts, the Lighting and

Watching Acts, the Burials Acts, and the Public Im

provements Acts.

In the County of London local government is carried on under the County Council by the Vestries, formed under the Metropolis Management Acts, which exercise powers similar but somewhat wider than urban district

councils. These Vestries are elected on the same wide suffrage as district councilors. Married women, properly qualified, have votes, and may now sit on them, as well as single women.

In all the great towns, including "county boroughs," local business is administered by a municipal Corporation, which derives its authority from a charter granted by the Crown. In 1835 the municipalities of the country were completely reorganized. A municipal Corporation consists of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, and acts through a Council elected by the burgesses-practically by the ratepayers. The councilors serve for three years, one third retiring annually; the aldermen are elected by the Council, and the mayor, who serves for one year, also by the Council. A municipal Corporation has practically all the powers of an urban district council, in addition to the privilege of electing a mayor and corporation, and in some cases municipal boroughs have a separate commission of the peace and maintain their own police force. As to Poor Law and School Board administration, see “Pauperism" and "Instruction." Scotland.-By the Local Government (Scotland) Act, 1894, a Local Government Board for Scotland was constituted, its President being the Secretary for Scotland. The Local Government Act, which was passed for Scotland in 1889, followed in its main outlines the English Act of the previous year. The powers of local administration in counties formerly exercised by the Commissioners of Supply and Road Trustees, were either wholly or in part transferred to the new Councils, which took over their duties and responsibilities in 1890. The Act of 1894 provided that a Parish Council should be established in every parish to take the place of the Parochial Boards, and to exercise powers similar to those of the Parish Councils in cost of administration. Such towns, having over 1,500 inhabitants, may be constituted urban sanitary districts.

The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not bound by Acts of the Imperial Parliament unless specially mentioned. The Isle of Man is administered in accordance with its own laws by the Court of Tynwald, consisting of the Governor, appointed by the Crown; the Council for Public Affairs, composed chiefly of ecclesiastical and judicial dignitaries appointed by the Crown, and the House of Keys, a representative assembly of 24 members chosen on a property qualification for seven years by the six "sheadings" or focal subdivisions, and the four municipalities. The Channel Islands are administered according to their own laws and customs, each by a Lieut. Governor, with judicial and other functionaries; and a "States" Assembly, partly elective. Jersey has a separate legal existence. Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark have a Lieut. Governor in common, but otherwise their governments are separate.

in

Justice.-England and Wales.-The principal courts having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery, more popularly known as "assizes," and the Central Criminal Court. Two or more justices of the peace sitting in a petty sessional courthouse, the Lord Mayor or any alderman of the City of London, or any metropolitan or borough police magistrate or other stipendary magistrate sitting a courthouse, constitute a petty sessional court. The courts of quarter sessions are held four times a year by the justices of the county. Similar courts can be held at other times, and are then called "general sessions." Two justices constitute a court, but usually a larger number attend. Certain boroughs have a court of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the county justices in quarter sessions assembled, in which the recorder of the borough is the judge. The assize courts are held four times a year in various towns throughout the country by "commissioners" nominated by the Crown. These commissioners are generally judges of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice, but sometimes Queen's Counsel of good standing are appointed. The trial takes place before a single commissioner. The Central Criminal Court is the court of over and terminer and gaol delivery for the City of London and a large surrounding district. The sessions of this court are held at least twelve times a year, and more often if necessary. The Recorder and the Common Sergeant, and, if the number of the prisoners makes it necessary, the judge of the City of London Court, sit on the first two days, after which they are joined by the judges of the High Court on the rota, for whom the more serious cases are reserved. A petty sessional court deals summarily with minor

offenses. Cases of a more serious nature are usually investigated by a petty sessional court before being tried at the sessions or the assizes. To every session, assize, and to every sitting of the Central Criminal Court, the sheriff cites 24 of the chief inhabitants of the district, of whom not less than 12 and not more than 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury. The grand jury examines the bill of indictment against the accused person, hears the evidence of witnesses for the prosecution, and if they think a prima facie case for trial is made out they indorse the bill "a true bill." All criminal trials, except those which come before a court of summary jurisdiction, take place before a judge and a petty jury of twelve men. Except on some highly technical point of procedure there is no appeal in criminal cases. No man can be tried again for the same crime after a petty jury has found him "not guilty." On a conviction the judge can, if he think fit, reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court for Crown Cases Reserved. This Court is formed by five or more judges of the High Court, and can reverse, amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other method of securing the revision of a sentence is by the royal prerogative, exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary, by which a sentence can be modified or annulled. Nominally all the judges are appointed by the Queen, but in practice the Lord Chancellor (who is a Cabinet minister, ex officio president of the House of Lords, and goes out with the ministry) and the Lord Chief Justice are appointed on the recominendation of the Prime Minister, and all the other judges on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.

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Scotland.-The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. It consists of all the judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less frequently, as the number of cases before it may require, in Edinburgh or in the circuit towns. judge can, and usually does, try cases, but two or more preside in cases of difficulty or importance. It is the only competent court in cases of treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising, deforcement of messengers, and generally in all cases in which a higher punishment than imprisonment is by statute directed to be inflicted; and it has moreover an inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts, both those already established by common law or statute, and such as have never previously come before the courts and are not within any statute.

The sheriff of each county is the proper criminal judge in all crimes occurring within the county which infer only an arbitrary punishment, and if the case is tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review on the merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court the accused is, under the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act of 1887, regularly asked to plead in the sheriff court, and minor objections to the indictment can be wholly or in part disposed of there. Borough magistrates and justices of the peace have jurisdiction in petty cases occurring within the burgh or county, and in a number of minor offenses under various statutes.

Ireland.-In Ireland persons charged with crime are first brought before the petty sessions court, which must consist of at least two ordinary justices of the peace, one of whom may be a stipendary-commonly called a resident magistrate. Then if the charge be trifling it may be disposed of, the prisoner, if convicted, having a right of appeal to the quarter sessions or recorder's court (according as it is in a borough or in the county), provided he is fined more than twenty shillings or sentenced to a longer imprisonment than one month (Petty Sessions Act, sec. 24). If the charge be of a more serious character it must either be dismissed or sent for trial to the quarter sessions or recorder's court, or to the assizes, as in England. There is this difference, however, between quarter sessions in Ireland and in England: in England they are presided over by an unpaid chairman, who need not be a lawyer, and who is elected by his fellow justices of the peace for the county; while in Ireland they are presided over by a paid official, who must be a barrister, whose decision on points of law binds the court, who is appointed by the Crown, and who is also judge of the civil bill court of the county, which corresponds to the English county court. The assizes are presided over by one of the common law judges of the High Court of Justice. In the quarter sessions, recorder's court, and assizes the trial is by jury in all cases save appeals from petty sessions. Under the Crimes Act witnesses and persons suspected of crime may be interrogated before a secret court of inquiry; but admissions then made are not