after the experiments than before them-except as to a few guiding principles-he must needs increase them; but the results gain in certainty thereby. . . . In this way not only are many parts of the methods hitherto in use subjected to criticism, but also many forms and details of methods are discovered and at once adapted to the new point of departure."

Dr. Mayo gives us an account of the manner in which Pestalozzi would seize upon, and make use of, incidents in school work as the basis of principle and practice. "It was proposed to bring education more in contact with the child's own experience and observation, and to find in him the first link in the chain of his instruction. In the execution of this plan, a series of engravings was provided, representing those objects which are familiar to children; and the lessons consisted in naming their parts, describing their structure and use. One day, however, the master having presented to his class the engraving of a ladder, a lively little boy exclaimed: 'But there is a real ladder in the courtyard; why not talk about it rather than the pic-. ture !' The engraving is here,' said the master, and it is more convenient to talk about what is before your eyes than to go into the courtyard to talk about the other.' The boy's observation, thus eluded, was for that time disregarded.

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"Soon after, the engraving of a window formed the subject of examination; 'But why,' exclaimed the same little objector, 'talk of this picture of a window, when there is a real window in the room, and there is no need to go into the courtyard for it?' Again the remark was silenced, but in the evening both circumstances were mentioned to Pestalozzi. 'The boy is

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right,' said he; 'the reality is better than the counterfeit; put away the engravings, and let the class be instructed by means of real objects.' The plan was adopted." Herein is also the evolution of the Object Lesson.

The foregoing will show that Pestalozzi was not ignorant of the methods of scientific inquiry, and that he did not fail to make use of them. He had studied natural history during his student days at Zurich; and the researches which he, for several years, pursued before writing his treatise On Legislation and Infanticide, the Inquiry, etc., and Essay on the Causes of the French Revolution, must all have disciplined him, to some extent, for his educational investigations and speculations. But, after all, his supreme qualification for the work he did was just his genius. To genius it would seem, in some cases, that power is given to create a world of ideas from what had previously been almost a formless void; whilst it is always its privilege to make actual what other men may not yet have dreamed to be even possible. Genius is the greatest of all influences in human affairs, and, therefore, speaking broadly, needs less influencing from other forces—and, indeed, is least open to the action of ordinary influences, because it is so much superior to them. The pity is that in the case of Pestalozzi the expression of his great thoughts is sometimes so indistinct and so involved that it is difficult, if not impossible, to say exactly what he means. Yet there is an overwhelming force of truth and clearness in most of his work, and it is quite possible for his disciples to construct a sound and connected body of principles from what he has written; and we now proceed to make an attempt to do something of this sort.

I. Education as the Means of Social Development. We must always remember that Pestalozzi was, first and last, a social and political reformer, and that he regarded the education of the poorer classes as the only sure means to bring about sound social reform. 'Elementary education alone can regenerate and save society," he said. Again, he writes: "Let us hope that those who govern humanity will come to the conviction that the betterment of the human race is their most important, indeed their sole, concern. I am convinced that, sooner or later, all that I wish for the education of the people will be realised." As a boy he got to know, through his visits to his uncle and grandfather, of the hard lot of the country people, and used to say: "When I am big, I shall stand up for the peasants; they have a right to the same advantages as the townspeople". When a student he had written, in Der Erinnerer: "I wish that all who work with their hands, all who live hard-working, frugal and selfsupporting lives, should be looked upon as the pillars of our liberty, and be much more esteemed amongst us ". During this period he also published an essay in which he tells the history of Agis, King of Sparta, who endeavoured to reform his people. Although brought up amidst the greatest luxury he lived a severely simple life, and tried to persuade his wealthier subjects to follow his example. He also tried to secure a fresh. distribution of land amongst his people, so that general prosperity might be restored. He failed in his efforts, and paid for his boldness with his life. Pestalozzi eloquently praises Agis for his wisdom and courage.

At Neuhof he begins his great educational work by

trying to reclaim the outcast and poor; at Stanz he seeks to save the orphans; at Burgdorf he longs to return to his Poor School work; at Yverdon he insists on returning to his first and constant love; and, finally, when he returns to Neuhof to die, he again begins his cherished labour of love for the poor and neglected. He sought to strengthen and refine the weakest and roughest link in the social chain. He says: “If we wish to aid the poor man, the very lowest among the people, we can do so only in one way, namely, by changing the schools of the people into places of true education, in which the moral, mental and physical powers, which God has put into our nature, may be drawn out, so that a man may be enabled to live such a life as he should live: happy in himself, and a blessing to others. Only in this way can a man, whom in the whole world nobody does really help because nobody can truly help, learn to help himself." This is a fine conception, and expression, of the truest and best way of helping others. It is universal in its truth, and Pestalozzi was always striving to make it universal in its application.

Pestalozzi argues, in Leonard and Gertrude, that if men are impoverished in mind and body they become degraded in both, and develop such vices as dishonesty, low cunning, craftiness, suspicion, wild violence, revengefulness and cruelty. They lose all, what are commonly called, the natural affections and develop many of the worst animal instincts: cruelty to their own offspring, treachery to one another, and bestial living. Thus society not only loses all the advantages which might be obtained by providing means for cultivating the powers for good which are in every man, but

suffers the positive dangers and disasters of having to control viciously disposed human beings.

It is, therefore, a duty of society to provide education for all, both because all God's gifts to man are good, and lay upon us the obligation of using them well and rightly; and because the self-interests of society are concerned in getting the best, and not the worst, from each and every member of the social body. The first aim of governments should, therefore, be to get the most and the best from the working classes. They should, at least, take as intelligent a view of the situation as the slave-owner, viz., that the better the workers are cared for the better it will be for the money-bags. Even such a mercenary motive would lead to a very different treatment of the peasants.

The value of a man to the community in which he lives depends almost wholly upon the full and right development of his faculties, and the proper employment of his trained powers. To this end the social institutions, morals and methods of education need to be of the best. If men lack social culture they tend to remain in the state of primitive man; and true justice. and security are impossible in the society in which they live. Education should prepare individuals for what they will be in the community. They should be so trained that they use their abilities to the greatest possible advantage, whether it be as ploughmen or rat-catchers.

As a matter of fact, says Pestalozzi, we find that the children of the poor are the best educated in relation to the work they will have to do in the community. Mothers and fathers instinctively see what is necessary and best for their children-in the state of life in which