Froebel clearly recognised this idea of organic development in Pestalozzi's system. Writing to the Princess Regent of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on 27th April, 1809, to report as to his opinion of Pestalozzi's principles and work-Froebel being at that time resident in the institution of Yverdon-he says: "He has a whole man in his eye, as an unseparated and inseparable whole, and in all that he does and wishes to do for him and his cultivation, he does it for him as a whole. At no time does he act only for the development of one power, leaving the others without nourishment; for example, he is never acting for the mind alone and leaving unconsidered, unsatisfied, uncared for, inactive, the body and the soul, all the powers are cared for at all times. But often one or other of the three great divisions of man's nature stands forth and apparently dominates the others.

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"Pestalozzi takes into view man according to and in his manifestations, according to the laws of nature, and those which are grounded in the mind of man, when he works specially upon the predominating power; it is not done in an isolated and divided way, but in order to work through his treatment upon the other equal but slumbering and resting powers. So, for example, in one and the same epoch upon the senses, through these upon the body, and through these again upon the feelings, and so on in a perpetual round."

Similarly Herbart writes: "A perfect regularity in the sequence of studies adapted to all requirements was to me the ideal which I looked upon as the ever present means of ensuring to all instruction its real efficiency. It was the discovery of this sequence, of the arrangement and co-ordination of what was to be learned con

temporaneously and what consecutively, which formed, as I understood it, Pestalozzi's chief aim" (Herbart's letter on How Gertrude Teaches).

Intellectual education is declared by Pestalozzi to be the pure development of our power of knowing-the reason by the perfectly simple method of making the use of the reason habitual. Now all the activities of the mind are exercised upon (1) the mental results of those original impressions which the objects of the outer world make upon us, and (2) the analysing, comparing and combining of such mental results. Education must, therefore, be based upon, imitate, and assist the natural processes of the mind, i.e., it must be psychological. Pestalozzi said: "I want to psychologise education ".

V. The Process of Intellectual Education.

It is clear, from the above, that the starting-point of intellectual education must be the impressions made upon the mind by experiences, for these are the only materials upon which mind can act; and they have, so to say, a compelling force to which the mind inevitably responds. The result of the action and reaction, between the mind and the impression, is that an intellectual product is formed-an idea. To illustrate what Pestalozzi means, we may give this example: if a piece of ice is put into the hand of a child this produces a certain effect upon consciousness, which we express by saying that the mind has the idea of coldness. Of course the child need have no knowledge of the name "coldness". The effect upon consciousness is, under ordinary circumstances, inevitable and absolute; and there must necessarily be set up in the mind what we

call the idea of coldness. Such fundamental elements are involved in all ideas; and by their combinations and relations (through judgment) are derived complex ideas.

Thus we arrive at the very heart and centre of Pestalozzi's theory of education. All mental life and activity begins in this way, therefore all true education must begin, continue and end in this way. He speaks of these fundamental processes as anschauung. This word has been variously translated into English as (1) intuition, (2) sense-impression, and (3) observation. We shall follow Pestalozzi's own plan and use all three terms, because they express the various phases of its meaning, viz., (1) of seemingly direct cognition or immediate knowing; and (2) the mediate knowing of external things, for which there must be both observation and sense-impression. Pestalozzi, in one place, defines anschauung thus: "It is simply the actual manifestation of external things, and the raising in consciousness the impression which they excite".

This original or native capacity for knowing is well put in another passage in which Pestalozzi says: "I endeavoured to investigate the exact time of life when instruction begins, and I soon arrived at the conviction that the first hour of instruction is the hour of birth: the first tutor is nature and her tuition begins from the moment when the child's senses are opened to the impressions of the surrounding world. The feeling of novelty by which life first surprises the infant, is in itself nothing else than the first waking up of the capability of receiving those impressions. It is the arousing of all the germs of physical powers, whose growth is completed, and whose whole energy and sole tendency is now directed towards their expansion and cultivation.

The animal is entirely formed, and something above the animal is awakened in it, which, while it clearly testifies the destination of the new-born being for a human existence, gives him at the same time a positive impulse towards the attainment of that purpose.

That the wider meaning of the term is used by Pestalozzi is clearly shown by his own statement: "Anschauung is the immediate and direct impression produced by the world on our inner and outer senses, i.e., the impressions of the moral world on our moral sense, and of the physical universe on our bodily senses".

This, so to say, is the germ form of knowing. If the mind could not know for itself, as we say, it could not be taught to know; any more than a blind man could be taught to see. As Professor James says: "The mere existence of a thing outside the brain is not a sufficient cause for our knowing it: it must strike the brain in some way, as well as be there, to be known. But the brain being struck, the knowledge is constituted by a new construction that occurs altogether in the mind. . . . And when once there, the knowledge may remain there, whatever becomes of the thing."

Pestalozzi has expressed his own view of the importance of this in education. He writes: "If I look back and ask myself what I have really done towards the improvement of the methods of elementary instruction, I find that in recognising intuition as the absolute basis of all knowledge, I have established the first and most important principle of instruction; and that, setting aside all particular systems of instruction, I have endeavoured to discover what ought to be the character of the instruction itself, and what are the fundamental laws according to which the education of human nature

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must be determined in accordance with nature". also remarks: "Intuition is the absolute basis of all knowledge; in other words, all knowledge must proceed from intuition and must admit of being retraced to that source" (How Gertrude Teaches).

To use an illustration to emphasise Pestalozzi's point, we may say that he argues that just as in geometry (Euclid) all the most complex and important proofs and demonstrations grow out of the axioms-which are, in fact, intellectual intuitions-and postulates and must, in the last resource, be resolvable into them; so all the higher developments of thought and reason are based upon, and resolvable into, those beginnings of knowledge which he called intuitions.

Now, the mind not only does achieve these intuitions, but it has, so to say, a longing and a desire to form them as often, and as much, as possible. Man has an inborn, instinctive, tendency to exercise, to the fullest extent, each and every power he possesses. As Pestalozzi so well expresses it: "We attain all our knowledge through the infinite charm that the tree of knowledge has for the sensibility of our nature" (How Gertrude Teaches). This instinct for activity is aroused and augmented by every influence which acts upon it, as well as by its own native impulses.

Hence we may say that the learner is, in a sense, able to create out of his own activities an organised body of knowledge about life. Education, from this point of view, is simply the art of assisting nature in its efforts after its own development. This is the reason for saying that thought must be developed from thinking. Thought can only grow out of what it is into what we wish it to be-its better, and best, forms. We must