to the best account, availing himself of every aid that lies within his reach. In so doing he will be the benefactor of society by efficiently supplying its wants, by encouraging among his laborers those qualities upon which their happiness and usefulness depend, and by enabling them to obtain knowledge and skill, which, but for his vigilant direction, they could not attain. As his own special reward he will obtain large profits.

As a laborer, he should endeavor to cultivate in himself those qualities, to attain that knowledge and skill which will make his services most acceptable to the capitalist. He should serve his employer faithfully, bringing all his intelligence to bear upon his work. He will then serve society by making the capital upon which he is employed as productive as possible, and will earn for himself the reward of high wages. If his wages be lower than desirable, he should seek for the means of obtaining higher, taking care, at the same time, not to engage in strikes, or any other such means, whose real tendency is the opposite of the one sought for. Should there be no means of immediately obtaining higher wages, he should endeavor to increase his productiveness as the only means of increasing the store out of which wages are paid, and of obtaining for himself a large share of that store.

These examples, not thought to be comprehensive, but only illustrative, of the kind of knowledge not to be dispensed with, must suffice. Enough if they serve as indications. Other points, no way inferior in importance, are sure to suggest themselves. The teacher has to remember that his work is to send the boy out, fitted for the duties of life. He must not rest satisfied without sending his teaching right home to the hearts of his boys, so as to lead to actual living results.

The knowledge that shall be imparted beyond what is here indicated, must depend upon circumstances, and need scarcely be discussed now. With the boy who is able to remain at school five or six years, of course more can be attempted than with him whose time is but two years. Few will complain of too much knowledge, but all have a right to complain when indispensables are neglected for the sake of things of doubtful or inferior importance. The intelligent educator will throughout select those materials which either have the most direct bearing upon the boy's future wants, or most efficiently aid in the formation of the judgment and character.

Our question was, "What are the best means for making the schoolmaster's functions more efficient than it has hitherto been in preventing Misery and Crime ?"

The foregoing remarks proposed as an answer to this question, may be briefly summed up thus:-By the schoolmaster's making himself better acquainted with the causes of these evils, in their first beginnings especially; by working into the minds of his boys the conviction of the duties devolving upon them; by training them in habits corresponding with those convictions, and by imparting knowledge calculated to enable them to act up to their convictions.

It need scarcely be said that the subject is not thought hereby to be exhausted, or that the sketches of lessons that have been adventured pretend to be nothing more than skeletons, depending for their value upon the living teacher.

There will not be wanting objections to the proposal to attempt this kind of teaching and training. "To do this we must neglect other things," is one common objection. Be it so, if necessary, unless those "other things" can be shown to be of greater, or of equal importance. What amount of "other things" can compensate for habits of idleness, dishonesty, and extravagance-for passions unchecked, and a mind unstored with the knowledge necessary to the performance of the great duties of life; and that this knowledge and these habits do not come spontaneously, is a matter of experience.

Another objection is-"There is not time to do it perfectly, the children do not remain long enough at school." Well, then, do it imperfectly; do it as far as you can. No one will say that a little honesty, industry, economy, or even knowledge of this kind is “a very bad thing." That teacher must do his work very badly who sees a boy leave his school, even after a three months' stay, without some useful thoughts, some good resolves, and some insight into the duties of his future career.

If the time be short, why, then, work the harder! and, perhaps, you will find in this effort and this direction of it, the means of detaining the boy longer in a school where himself and his parents will feel he is gaining something worth making a sacrifice to obtain.

Whether, by incorporating productive labor with the school work, it is possible in some cases to retain the children longer at school, or more efficiently to cultivate the industrial qualities, is a question that, perhaps, deserves more attention than has yet been given to it.

It is strongly insisted upon by some, that owing to peculiar organization certain individuals are predisposed to particular vices, and that this predisposition requires particular attention. It is a fact that in some cases, children, under the influence of bad example, very early acquire habits which will need the greatest attention for their cure. Now, if the first case be a true one, still, for all practical purposes, the two cases may be looked upon as one. Both call for special attention; to the work of prevention is added that of cure, to some extent, in both cases. Careful watching for the display of the bad habit; constant checking of it; kindly encouragement whenever improvement is attempted: these are the means called for.

Such, then, the work, and now a word in conclusion upon the work

man.

How much depends upon him! It is not enough that he has plans and theories in any quantity stored in his head; he must be devoted to his work; fully aware of the difficulties he has to overcome; well acquainted with the implements he is using; thoroughly alive to the immense importance of the results he is aiming at; full of love for the tender beings under his charge, and of faith in the efficacy of his mission; enthusiastic and willing to be spent in his work, and, if necessary, to find his whole reward in the consciousness of being the means of moulding the children committed to him into good, useful, and happy men. When such are the men to whom the teaching and training of the young is committed, we may hope for results till then impossible.

The foregoing Essay received the prize of $100 offered by the United Association of Schoolmasters of Great Britain, 46 On the best means of making the schoolmaster's function more efficient than it has hitherto been in preventing misery and crime." The reading of the Essay in a meeting of the Association, called forth a discussion of the argument, which was thought by Mr. Tate, "to be clear, simple and argumentative," but not exhaustive. "He had no fault to find with what the essayist proposed to do; he had only to find fault with what he did not propose to do. He would advocate the introduction of social science in schools, but he would make it supplementary to the authority of revelation. He would invert the order in which the essayist proposed to proceed. He should not begin with the principles of social science, and end with the dictates of revealed religion; but he would begin with revelation, and end with the arguments to be derived from social science. Let them take an example. It was a common observation-'Honesty is the best policy.' All would admit that axiom. But before he would expound this axiom, as derived from moral philosophy, or from social science, he should first give the child the Divine authority for the law-Thou shalt not steal.' The child was to obey the command of God from love-love towards his good and beneficent Creator."

After remarks by Mr. Tilleard and other members, Mr. Tainsh said, "He did consider the religious teaching, commonly given in our schools, a palpable sham, as Mr. Tilleard had represented it, for his own observation had led him to that conclusion; yet he did not think he would better have fulfilled his task by attempting to expose the sham, or to alter the system. He thought he had pointed out the best means for preventing misery and crime, inasmuch as the means suggested were those which struck directly at the root of the evils. He had not attempted to traverse the whole range of school appliances and teaching, and among other things had omitted what was called religious, or, more properly, theological teaching. He discovered throughout the whole of the objections, one leading thought, which appeared to him a radical error, viz., the supposition of antagonism between social economy and religion: that social economy took as its motive-interest, while religion took the higher motiveduty. He suggested that this notion arose from a misapprehension of the nature of social economy, which was indeed but the practical application of the religion of the Redeemer."

VI. GIDEON HAWLEY, LL.D

GIDEON HAWLEY, to whose superintendence was committed by the State of New York the inauguration of its system of popular education, was born in Huntington, Conn., September 20th, 1785. In 1794, his parents, Gideon and Sarah (Curtiss) Hawley, removed to the county of Saratoga, N. Y. In 1809 he graduated at Union College. He was immediately appointed a tutor in this institution, but in the spring of 1810 he resigned his place to pursue the study of law in Albany. He was just ready to enter upon his profession, when in January, 1813, he was appointed to the newly created office of Superintendent of Common Schools. At the end of eight years another political party became dominant in the state, and Mr. Hawley was superseded. In 1814 he was appointed to the secretaryship of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, in which office he was continued by annual reappointment till his resignation in 1841. In the following year the state legislature appointed him to fill a vacancy in the Board of Regents; and this office he still holds.

When Mr. Hawley was appointed Superintendent of Common Schools of the State of New York, the legislature had just set aside a system which had been found unequal in its operation and inadequate to the wants of the people. The school law of 1812 provided that the several towns in the state should be divided into school districts by three commissioners, elected by the citizens qualified to vote for town officers; that these trustees should be elected in each district, to whom should be confided the superinten lence of the school to be established therein; that the interest of the school fund should be divided among the different counties and towns according to their respective population; that the proportion received by the respective towns, should be subdivided among the districts according to the number of children in each between the ages of five and fifteen years; that only those towns which should raise annually by tax as much money as they received from the school fund, should receive a share of the public money after the first distribution; that the gross amount of moneys received from the state and raised by the towns, should be appropriated exclusively to the payment of the wages of the teachers;

and that the whole system should be placed under the superintendence of an officer appointed by the council of appointment.

The superintendent found himself greatly embarrassed in carrying into effect the beneficent intentions of this law. In many towns there was not interest enough in the matter to comply with the conditions of the law. Where it was otherwise, in the complete reorganization of the schools supervision, extending often to the minutest details, and patient, laboring, persevering exposition were demanded. Furthermore, the law was found in some respects defective in its provisions, and obscure and doubtful in its meaning. Mr. Hawley encountered these difficulties with admirable tact, and discharged the duties of his office as efficiently as their multifarious and perplexing character would permit. He addressed himself also to the perfecting of the law. In accordance with the recommendations of his first annual report, presented February 4th, 1814, the legislature passed several amendments, the most important of which was to make it obligatory upon towns to comply with the act, and also on the board of supervisors of the several counties to levy on their respective towns a sum equal to the sum to be apportioned to such towns out of the public money.

It required the patient labor of years to bring the new system into full operation. Then it was impossible for several years to ascertain with much exactness what were its results, for the returns were far from being complete, and many were defective in one or more of their necessary requisites. Still, in 1810, Mr. Hawley was able to report that "the establishment of common schools by law, had already produced many great and beneficial results;" and that the great ends proposed under the wise and liberal policy of the legislature, namely, the establishment of schools whenever necessary, their organization on a suitable and permanent foundation, with safeguards against the admission of unqualified teachers, "had been so far accomplished as to warrant full faith in their final complete attainment." The average sum of public money then received by each district was twenty dollars, which gratuity Mr. Hawley considered important, as it tended to excite an interest in the affairs of common schools, and was also beneficial in many other respects.

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In his fifth annual report, given under date of March 16th, 1816, 7 Mr. Hawley stated that there were more than five thousand schools, in which upwards of two hundred thousand children were taught. "On comparing the returns of common schools however for different years, it appeared," to quote from the report, "that in almost every district, a greater proportion of the children between the ages of five and fifteen years have been taught, and a regular school supported for