Such verbs are those meaning to wish, to desire, to be anxious, to be willing or unwilling, to intend, to prefer, to permit, to prohibit, to stipulate, to decide, to determine, to decree, to command, to direct, to request, to urge, to charge, to demand, to take care, to see to it, etc.: "It is my desire that you shall not be kept in ignorance." "The commander has stipulated that none but able-bodied men shall be sent him."

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They have given orders that he shall be tried by a court marshal."

3. Indirect questions follow the rule for declarative clauses; but in the second and the third person shall may be employed when the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as that of the principal clause. The principle here is the same as in B, IV, 1, 6:

"I wonder when you will come."

"You are uncertain when you shall [or will] be permitted to depart."

"He asks whether he shall [or will] find me at home.” "They do not know when he will return."

The following passages show faulty use of these auxiliaries: "Without attending to this, we will be at a loss in understanding several passages in the classics, which relate to public speaking, and the theatrical entertainments of the ancients."1

"If I draw a catgut or any other cord to a great length between my fingers, I will make it smaller than before."2

"Mr. Thornton was without any suite, as it is intended that the staff or legation formerly attached to Sir Frederick Bruce will act under the orders of Mr. Thornton, until further news from the foreign office." 3

"Shall the material universe be destroyed?" 4

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'He refrains from expressing his opinion from fear that he will be opposed."

"Often a young man does not go to college, because he is afraid that he will be raised above his business."5

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"A lesson has been taught, the memory of which will live long after the other issues of this campaign will be forgotten."6

1 Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric. Goldsmith. 3 Quoted by Richard Grant White, Words and their Uses. Question discussed by a Scotch Debating Society. Quoted by A. S. Hill, Principles of Rhetoric. Daily Paper.

6

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Should and would, being merely the imperfect tense of shall and will, are, in general, subject to the same rules. But the following peculiarities should be noted:

a. Should often expresses duty or obligation in all persons, being the equivalent of ought to.

"Should I go or stay?"

"One should never be guilty of such an act."

b. "Should is sometimes used in a substantive clause, where the indicative form, if employed, would be will not shall:

"I am sorry that you will be disappointed;" "I was sorry that you should be disappointed."

"I regret that he will never see his father again;" "I regret that he should never see his father again."

C.

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Would is frequently used to express customary action:

On summer afternoons he would sit in the door and recount the exploits of that famous day."

d. Would that, often with subject omitted, is used in wishes: “Would that he were here!"

f. Would have, followed by an infinitive, is used to express a desire or preference:

"I would have him die, or live without dishonor."

The following quotations illustrate the misuse of should and

would:

"If I should declare them and speak of them, they should be more than I am able to express."

"2

"In judging only from the nature of things, and without the surer aid of revelation, one should be apt to embrace the opinion of Diodorus Siculus." 3

"This man was taken of the Jews, and should have been killed of them." 4

"It was requested that no persons would leave their seats during dinner." 5

"They intended making no suggestions or recommendations further than that, if Pennsylvania was to be represented, the

'Tennyson, Mariana. 2 Book of Common Prayer. 3 Warburton, Divine Legation. Acts 23:27. Richard Grant White, Words and their Uses.

appointment would be given to a man who should be known as an unflinching supporter of the Republican party.”1

"Now I would have thought that these were just the people who should have been the most welcome.""

The reason for this variation in the different kinds of clauses is difficult to understand. It lies too deep in the nature of the thought to be discussed in the present article, the object of which is to state the mere facts in the case, not to trace their history or to discuss the psychological basis of the differences pointed out. But few words, therefore, are necessary in explanation of the foregoing treatment. If the examples used to illustrate the several principles are set aside, it will be seen that the whole discussion has to do with only three classes of principal clauses and four of subordinate. It is therefore quite within bounds to say, that any intelligent person who is willing to devote an hour's study to mastering the outlines of the subject, and two or three half hours more at different times to reviewing them, may so fix in his mind the usage of the language in regard to these perplexing words, as to be sure of employing them with confidence and correctness for the remainder of his life.

R'

WHAT IS READING?

SUPT. OREN T. SNOW, BATAVIA, ILLINOIS.

EADING is usually classified in pedagogic discussion as oral reading and silent reading. The former should give such a rendition of the thought and feeling of the author, as will make the same intelligible to the hearer. The latter should confer a complete mastery of these upon the reader.

The teacher's success or failure in teaching reading is usually based, so far as the public estimate is concerned, upon the oral method. The reason for this is not far to seek. Visiting parents and members of the Board of Education can easily enter into the spirit of the exercise; whereas, the same pupils would command less attention in a silent reading exercise, or, indeed, in one in arithmetic, grammar, or geography. Possibly to this fact is due the practice of the placing of new and difficult words at the begin

1 Quoted by A. S. Hill, Principles of Rhetoric.

ning of the lesson, instead of leaving them to be first encountered in the text. Surely there can be no good reason for this arrangement. The meaning of words can best be learned by the general significance of the sentence, and not by formal definition. Knowledge, and not its display, is the primary consideration.

There is danger, too, that selections for reading may be assigned the class that are too full of the hidden beauties of thought and imagination to be fully comprehended by the pupils. Perhaps, however, it would be better to say that in such cases the danger is that the teacher will demand too much of the pupil. We all have a feeling that we should be thorough- that we should go to the bottom of things. There is a strong desire that the class should thoroughly enjoy the inmost beauties of the selection. But the teacher must take counsel of his sober judgment, and stay his hand before he passes the limit of capacity, and therefore of enjoyment on the part of the pupils. It is not necessary that the selections should be read seriatim. This is especially true in the higher numbers of the series of readers.

Classes differ in their characteristics. No teacher pursues exactly the same method with the successive classes. He has been silently reading between the lines of his course. He may have discovered that too much has been required in reading some of the selections. He has, perhaps, not so much followed the devices and desires of his own heart as he has acted upon the advice of others, supposed to be more competent. Thus he may have found it suggested that pupils should be thoroughly questioned upon the characteristics of the piece. Now to question thoroughly with reference to the selection under consideration is one thing, but to question with reference to the capacity of the class to see and enjoy its beauties, is quite another. It is then possibly a mistake to append to selections in the readers a long list of questions, as samples of what should be expected of teachers in the management of their reading classes. Surely, any teacher will see as much in the exercise as there is time, or capacity on the part of the class, to consider. We learn to read by reading, rather than by talking about it, or by getting ready to do it at some other time.

There is reason for fearing that reading in our schools has been made to carry too many burdens of late years. One of these burdens is the idea of the elocutionist that every shade of thought

and feeling must be clearly set forth in the vocal rendition. This has already been noticed. Another is a consideration of geographical and historical allusions. Still another is the calling attention to the rhetorical figures found in the exercise. It is by no means intended to throw discredit upon the value of these studies, but the maxims of the old professor of mathematics at West Point, "Teach one thing at a time and teach that thing well," was a good one. There is a time to dance and a time to pray. Of course, it will be remembered by all that he added: "Teach its connection with other things." There can be no objection to this in the reading, when the reading is well done.

Of course children should be encouraged to remember the dates of prominent events and to know the location of places named in their general reading, at home and in school; but, in the class recitation, the thought of the author is what the pupil is expected to know and express, without the diversions referred to, and even this under limitations, proportionate to the age and advancement of the class. A word here for the poor reader. Is it not a great mistake to permit or force him to occupy an undue portion of the time of the exercise? It is mortifying to the pupil and in no sense beneficial to the other members of the class. There is, commonly, too, a class sympathy for such unfortunates that reacts against the rigid teacher. Such cases have come under my notice, et quorum, pars fui. Additional reading in the lower grades may furnish some remedy. Quantity in oral reading is a large factor of success. The general information items of the reading lessons may, however, receive some attention, and should receive it.

It is well to gather up the fragments that nothing be lost. Can this be done in a way not prejudicial to success in the reading lessons? Why not set apart some time in which items of interest, necessarily omitted, may be fully discussed? If they are worth the time, let us give them the time. Questions may be written upon the board, calling for the desired information. These may remain upon the board during the week, and their discussion called for on rhetorical days, or at any time, specially assigned for that purpose. Pronunciation matches have been recommended, as the best way of securing improvement in that direction, and this suggestion seems to have won a general approval. Moreover, this approval is not confined to the teachers. It has been deemed. an important literary as well as social exercise. Doubtless it will,