used than proper terms; figures of thoughts, which suit best the elevated styles of poetry and oratory, are common to all languages, and can generally be translated, being independent of the words by which they are expressed. Tropes, on the contrary, cannot always be translated, because nations under the influence of different circumstances often attach to corresponding words peculiar figurative meanings; frequently also words in one language have not corresponding terms in another.

Not only are figures of words and all deviations from the primitive meanings of terms extremely numerous in every language, but the import and application of those which apparently correspond in any two idioms often materially differ. For example, the word passion, which expresses in English and in French the same generic idea, has in each language a specific signification very different; when used figuratively, it more usually means in English anger, and in French love. The word figure applies metaphorically to the human frame both in English and in French; but in the former language it means the whole person, and is rendered in French by taille, and in the latter it signifies the face. The figurative meaning of the verb to abuse is to insult (in French injurier), that of the corresponding French abuser is to deceive. The French un pied de céleri (literally a foot of celery), is rendered in English by a head of celery. There is, besides, a large number of expressions used figuratively in one language and not in the other: for example, to err, assault, young person, instantly, never lose their proper sense, whilst the corresponding French words have always a figurative sense, errer (to wander), assaut (fencing match, storming of a town), jeune personne (young lady), instamment (with entreaty). The adjective respectable, which in French always means deserving respect, is usually applied in English to a rich or well-dressed person, and to a well-looking object, a respectable house, a respectable dress, are very general expressions; their literal translation into any language would be ludicrous; the French verb valoir always preserves its proper sense, equivalent to, while its correspondent, to be worth, is used figuratively in the sense of to possess, and perversely implies that a man's worth is estimated by the amount of his money. It also frequently happens that an image, which in one language is consistent with good taste, would in another be considered trivial or ridiculous. In fact, the differences between the figurative meanings of apparently corresponding words in any two idioms are innumerable; and

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although they may, in many instances, be divined from the context when read or heard, they lead translators into frequent mistakes. It is, above all, when speaking or writing a foreign language that these differences present difficulty to a person who has not acquired it by familiar intercourse with the people, or incessant application to their books.

Each species of figure has obtained a particular name, which may be known by consulting treatises of rhetoric, and to which we refer the advanced student; but, although acquaintance with these names is sometimes useful, we do not think it indispensable. The right application of the figures themselves to different kinds of composition, and an acquaintance with the idiomatic sense of words, are the objects which demand the most serious attention. They will be secured by a critical analysis of the best writers, combined with diligent study of standard works on belles-lettres, and especially by mixing habitually with the well educated.

As due regard to the synonymy of words contributes to perspicuity and justness of expression, so the judicious application of figures imparts force, elegance, and consistency to style. Figurative forms enrich language by multiplying the signification of words; animate style by adorning it with allusions to the active scenes of nature; assist the judgment by embodying abstract notions in sensible images; and delight the imagination by offering to it endless means of exercise.

We will now examine in succession how the four branches can be most successfully and speedily attained.

VOL. II.

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BOOK VIII.

FIRST BRANCH-READING.

"Via opus est incipientibus sed ea plana, et cum ad ingrediendum tum ad demonstrandum expedita.-QUINTILIAN.” *

"Lire, lire, et toujours lire en la langue étrangère est le moyen par excellence."— AJASSON DE GRANSAGNE.†

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY BOOKS.

SECT. I.-ENDS TO BE ATTAINED IN READING THE
FOREIGN AUTHORS.

To reading has been assigned the first place in the study of a foreign language, because it is the easiest of the four branches, the most important as an ultimate object, and the most useful as a means by which to arrive at the other branches of a language learned out of the country in which it is spoken.

Easy, however, as this acquisition may be, time and labour have often been wasted in the pursuit from not knowing how to proceed. In order then that the student may advance rapidly in this art, we will point out what we conceive to be his proper course; and in doing so shall apply our observations both to the dead and to the living languages, because, although the study of the latter presents a larger field of usefulness, it is on a par with that of the former when reading and writing are the objects proposed.

"Young beginners require to be put on the road, and that road to be made smooth and easy."-Inst. Orat., Lib. 8, Proem.

↑ Art d'Etudier.

The three ends which are to be attained by the study of the first branch are, 1. Perfect understanding of the written languages; 2. Critical appreciation of the beauties in literary productions; 3. Acquisition of materials for speaking and writing. Through the exercises required for accomplishing these three ultimate objects will be obtained the incidental benefits, mental discipline and improvement in the native tongue. The acquisition of the knowledge conveyed by books, although the most important department of reading, is only a consequence of the possession of that art, and cannot be made one of the subdivisions of the study of language.

To attain these ends three things must be successively attended to, words, style, and subject. A learner's first aim should be to gain that familiarity with words in their different acceptations, without which neither style nor subject could be studied. The initiatory books, which we have called reading vocabularies, from the peculiar office which they are intended to fulfil, should exclusively engross his attention during the first stage of the study. A few elementary volumes of this sort 1 could not, it is true, bring under his notice all the materials of expression which constitute the verbal elements of a language; but, by making him acquainted with the most familiar portion of the foreign vocabulary, they will lay the foundation for studies of a higher character. His knowledge of words will continue to increase through the course, and will be commensurate with the extent of his reading.

The second object,―gaining acquaintance with the style,— will at a more advanced stage present no difficulty, and will be effected by comparing the constructions of the native and the foreign language, investigating the propriety, synonymy, and euphony of words, and analysing the phraseology on grammatical, logical, and rhetorical principles, as illustrated in standard authors.

At a still later period the third object will be attended to. When the learner has overcome the difficulties of the language by the reading of several volumes in different styles, he may attack those of the subject. Thoughts may be investigated and information acquired through the study of didactic works; the sentiments, opinions, statements, and arguments of their authors should be examined as regards morality and truth, so as to guard the young reader from error, and store his mind with none but sound knowledge.