view of the valley, we were made to examine the details, until we had obtained an exact and complete idea of it. We were then told to take some of the clay which lay in beds on one side of the valley and fill the baskets which we had brought for the purpose. On our return to the [school], we took our places at the long tables and reproduced in relief the valley we had just studied, each one doing the part that had been allotted to him. In the course of the next few days, [occurred] more walks and more explorations, each day on higher ground, and each time with a further extension of our work. Only when our relief was finished were we shown the map, which by this means we did not see until we were in a position to understand it. (8: 327)

SAND-PAN AS AN IMPORTANT AID IN CLARIFYING AND VITALIZING GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

The seven hills of Rome made by fourth-grade children in The University of Chicago Elementary School. Note the two walls, the river Tiber, and Horatius at the bridge. See explanation, below

Story of the above picture. This picture represents an excellent sand-table project worked out by fourth-grade pupils who were studying Roman history. The details of the picture, showing the seven hills of Rome, the two walls, the river Tiber, and the incident of Horatius at the bridge are worthy of careful study. For a complete description of the process by which the class carried on the work, see the article by the teacher, Miss Grace Storm, in the Elementary School Journal, November, 1915, Vol. XVI, pp. 132-146. For a similar project in geography,

namely, a relief and products map of the United States, see Miss Storm's article in the Elementary School Journal, September, 1914, Vol. XVI, pp. 29–40.

When engaged in the public schools of a small town in Illinois, Miss Storm secured the pans for similar projects through children who procured from home two shallow, galvanized-iron pans which had been used under automobiles in garages. Two cheap low tables were then procured, and the two pans, placed side by side, gave ample room for a map of the United States.

The picture illustrates the matter of schoolroom equipment and the use of constructive activities as well as the apperceptional teaching of geography as described on pages 183-187.

A SAXON SETTLEMENT AS A SAND-PAN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT IN FIFTH-GRADE HISTORY

From The University of Chicago Elementary School. Compare the articles by Miss Grace Storm referred to above

Inexpensive sand-pan makes surface features vivid. - In well-equipped schools of the present day large galvanizediron sand-pans are extensively used for making relief models of places studied. Pictures of such models made by the children are shown above and on page 186. As a rule, children work in committees on assigned units, such as the Appalachian Mountains, the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River. The careful attention to the geographic realities which is required of children in such an exercise will readily appear to the reader if she will try to model the Great Lakes in some sand. One fourth-grade child who was doing this said,

"Gee, the Great Lakes are hard to put in; they are so in-regular." After the relief of the United States is completed in the sand-table, it forms a vivid link in helping the children to understand a surface map done in colors; they readily translate the dark browns of the map into the high mountains of the sand-table, and translate the latter into the pictures of mountains with which the study began. Such symbols-pictures, sand-pan relief, and colored surface maps

carry for them much more real ideas of surface formations than are conveyed by the mere words of the book concerning elevations, depressions, mountain systems, and river basins. A four-by-six-foot galvanized-iron pan and the sand and clay which make possible such vivid geographic teaching can easily be secured at small cost for any school. In one school, in which reliefs like those shown on pages 184-186 were worked out by the pupils, the latter brought two pans from private garages where they had been used under automobiles.

Story of the picture on opposite page. This picture shows sixthgrade children engaged in solving an irrigation problem in sand-pans during the geography period. In the large pan you can see at the left a ditch which represents the river. To the right of the river is represented land which is considerably higher than the river. The problem was to irrigate this land from the river without using any mechanical device to pump or lift the water from the lower course of the stream. The children tried building dams at places in the upper course to back up and elevate the water. They then constructed across country, from above the dam, the main supply ditch, keeping it on high ground so that the lateral ditches supplying the farms descended toward the river. The picture illustrates the use of sand-pan modeling to clarify geographical ideas as described on page 185. It also illustrates training in problem solving and construction as well as the utilization of children's instinctive interests in manipulation, problem solving, and group emulation. The latter appears in the contest to see which of the several teams at work on the problem could first achieve a satisfactory solution.

Specialized teacher-training makes possible skilled apperceptional teaching. The effective use of modeling as a geographic aid requires more knowledge and training on the part of the teacher than merely hearing recitations of memorized words. This is true of all skilled teaching which properly recognizes the principle of apperception by providing abundant real experiences for children and building instruction upon these. But, as indicated in the introductory chapter, many normal schools now provide specialized training for teaching in primary grades and middle grades, and such training, if properly conducted, is devoted largely to giving students a knowledge of the children, subject matter, and methods of the grades in which they expect to teach. With such full specialized training, teachers may be expected to know enough themselves about realities to make ideas real to children and to secure from the latter mental responses of understanding and evaluation instead of mere words.

Conclusion. This will conclude our second chapter on the learning processes of pupils. In the first of these chapters we noted that the children learn through their selfactivity, through their own mental responses. Hence it becomes important for the teacher to be skilled in inferring just what the inner responses of children are and in understanding the conditions which influence these responses. In the present chapter we traced the influence of past experiences on present responses. In the next chapter we shall trace the influence of the pupil's present frame of mind.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

The references marked with an asterisk are especially recommended to beginners.

Child study.-I. HALL, G. S. Aspects of Child Life. (D. Appleton and Company.) Chap. i, pp. 1-52. Printed also in Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, pp. 139-173. Influential study of "the contents of children's minds on entering school."