and skipping is as beneficial as enjoyable to those in proper physical condition. And in this connection, the Guild of Play makes a strong point of careful study of home conditions before arranging for games. Thus, under-fed children or those of weak heart should not skip, while on the other hand, a letter comes from a "water-side" mother complaining that skipping makes her daughter eat too much.

A systematic study of the old rustic dances has been made by Mr. Cecil Sharp, and in the light of such researches the "water-rats" of London are to be collected on the playgrounds of the Council schools and wherever else space can be secured, and taught, or re-taught, the self-development known to the open-air children of earlier generations before the bitter stress of crowded modern life made them forget it. Self-government, and co-operation between parents and teachers are kept constantly in view, and at the Bermondsey University Settlement, where the Guild of Play has been for some time at work, it is regarded as the indispensable supplement of the day's teaching in school. It is hoped, too, to move the authorities to a greater recognition of the place of the playground and the play-hour in the education of children. E. W. COFFIN.

Professor Patrick Geddes, the creator of the Outlook Tower in Edinburgh, with the co-operation of a committee of his friends will open, at the end of February, 1907, a unique exhibition of toys. The exhibit falls into two classes; first, anthropological or natural; second, scientific or artificial toys. The former class results from the child's need of outer objects upon which to exercise and develop his powers. They may have been elaborated or even invented by adults and are sometimes genuine works of art. The latter class are more deliberate inventions with the intention of guiding and developing the powers of the child. A temporary loan collection is divided into the following classes: I. Ancient Toys-Rattles, Dolls, Animals, etc. 2. Historical Toys-Dolls, Toy Soldiers, Models of Animals, Houses, Ships, Implements, Diminutive Armor, Weapons, etc. 3. Toys from Remote Countries-Dolls, Models, Toy Weapons, Tops, Kites, Puzzles, Simple Mechanisms, Rudimentary Musical Instruments, etc. 4. National, Local, Traditional Toys (such as exist even yet in great variety among village children). 5. Works of Art representing Children at play. 6. Pictures or Photographs of Children or Savages at play.

Artists are invited to exhibit toys of their own creation under the usual conditions of art exhibitions with a commission on the price of all works sold. Each will be placed advantageously. Mathematicians, physicists and educators are invited to exhibit toy apparatus, puzzles, illustrating physics, etc. Parents and teachers are invited to exhibit toys which they consider reasonable. Competitions will be opened and prizes offered for the best. I. Model House (or group of houses). 2. Doll's House (Interior). 3. Model Vehicle. 4. Model Ship. 5. Mechanical Toy. 6. Scientific Toy. 7. Animal or animals carved in wood. 8. Animal or animals not carved in wood. 9. Plaything made of valueless, or nearly valueless, material.

The third section is open to children who may exhibit anything they have made or invented. These will be exhibited in classes in which boys and girls and children under five, seven, ten, and sixteen, respectively, will be distinguished. American contributions are solicited.

The Outlook Tower presents very attractive courses of lectures for the Spring of 1907. Eight are by Professor Geddes on the "Origin of Cities," six by Dr. Brock on the "History of Medicine," five on "Teaching Modern Language," by Dr. Schlapp. Others on nature study, embracing such subjects as sun dials, the meaning of fossils, the Swiss vales and Scotch highlands contrasted, etc. There are also demonstrations in art and in science open to teachers. G. S. H.

The scientific study of the imagination has been limited practically to the last half century, or even the last thirty years. A discussion going back to an earlier date would be merely a matter of erudition and not of great scientific interest.

The first works dealing with the subject from a modern standpoint were written about the first of the nineteenth century, but dealt with mental imagery rather than imagination. In fact, from 1825 until 1890, nearly all of value written in the field of imagination was on the topic of imagery.

This topic will therefore be considered first, because, in the first place, although it is distinct from the imagination proper, the image, as Philippe says, is the "simple substrate' of the imagination as well as of the memory (48:2); and, in the second place, because the type of mental imagery profoundly affects the character of the imagination. Queyrat asserts that "the aptitude of preserving more specially one order of sensations, and consequently of keeping the memory of them, creates the variety of minds." (49:38.)

As early as 1826, in a philosophical work, Bonald made some interesting observations on mental imagery. As would be expected, these are based entirely or almost entirely on personal introspection, and attribute to all men what the writer finds in himself.

1 Books in the bibliography are referred to by number. (1:52) means page 52 of the first book in the bibliography.

He writes: just as a man cannot think of material objects without having in him the image which is the expression or representation of these objects, so he cannot think of incorporeal objects, and those which do not fall directly under his senses, without having in himself and mentally the words which are the expression or representation of these thoughts, and which become discourse when one makes others hear them." (13:125.)

He states in another place that "the word within us is an imitation or a repetition of the word which we have heard." (13:123.)

Although Bonald limits the word image to an auditory representation, he gives a place to the representations of all the special senses. Thus: "man thinks of material objects by the impression which he is actually receiving or which he has received, an impression which is an image, a sound, an odor, or a taste, etc., according to the organs by which these impressions reach the soul. (13:385.)

In Cardaillac's writings we find the germ of the idea of kinæsthetic imagery. His "Elementary Philosophical Studies" appear to be the original inspiration of those numerous French monographs on "La Parole Intérieure." Like all the early writers in this field, he generalizes from his own introspection. Nevertheless his work is valuable as a good description of one type.

"For what," he asks, "is reflection, meditation if not talking to ourselves? And as we can talk to our fellows only by means of the word, in the same way it is only by the word that we can talk to ourselves. It is by the external word that we express our ideas to others, and it is by the internal word that we express them to ourselves. Deprive us of the means of articulation, and we are incapable of showing our feelings, our affections, ideas, opinions, beliefs, our thoughts of every kind. Deprived of the internal word we can neither reflect nor meditate. (15:285.)

Thus:

Cardaillac is acquainted with visual imagery, but regards it as subordinate. who can represent to himself a color in a manner as exact and as distinct as when it is before his eyes? The memory of the word on the contrary is as exact, as precise, and as rigorously determined as the sensations we hear can be." (15:304.)

But the memory image for him is not auditory; it is articulatory. "In the memory which constitutes the internal word, the sound which is its (the word's) substance has disappeared. There remains only the articulation." (15:305.)

Between 1830 and 1880 very little advance was made. But about the latter date investigations in imagery were being carried on by Galton, V. Egger, and Stricker.

Galton's classic study by means of the questionnaire it is unnecessary to describe. It is sufficient to say that it was concerned chiefly with visual imagery, and was aimed primarily to discover differences in extensity and intensity rather than quality. He found that men of science were comparatively deficient in visual imagery, that females were superior to males, and public school boys to men. (28:99.) He suggested that there might be analogous representations of other senses which might take the place of visual images. He writes: "I am, however, bound to say that the missing faculty seems to be replaced so serviceably by other modes of conception, chiefly I believe connected with the incipient motor sense, not of the eyeballs only, but of the muscles generally, that men who declare themselves entirely deficient in the power of seeing mental pictures can nevertheless give life-like descriptions of what they have seen (28:88.)

Galton found that the field of mental vision was often greater than that of actual vision, and that this was more frequent among men than among boys. (29:314, 315.) He also compared the "generic image" to a composite photograph, an idea adopted by many succeeding authors.

Bain, in criticising Galton's work shortly after the latter's first essays appeared, states that "an observation of high or low visualizing memory becomes psychology the minute the property is connected with some second property, as cause, consequence, condition, concomitant, and not till then.' (7:566.) This, he thought, Galton had failed to do. He himself suggested emotion (7:569) and artistic ability (7:570) as being possibly connected with the visualizing power in the ways above mentioned.

"The ear," he says, "plays a part in our intellectual being only second to sight." He suggests that in this we may find an explanation for the fact that one may be deficient in visual imagery and yet get through life creditably.

Bain was acquainted with kinæsthetic imagery also. What description could be better than this? "When we recall the impression of a word or sentence, if we do not speak it out, we feel the twitter of the organs just about to come to that point. The articulatory parts-the larynx, the tongue, the lips are all sensibly excited; a suppressed articulation is in fact the material of our recollection, the intellectual manifestation, the idea of speech." (6:357.)

As early as 1880, therefore, Bain was familiar with the three chief forms of mental imagery now recognized. In fact he believed that "all the sensations of the senses can be sustained in like manner, some more and some less easily; and they can afterwards be revived as ideas by means of associative forces; (6:355.)

Several investigations have been undertaken on lines similar to Galton's. Although out of chronological order, Armstrong's study of 1894, using the same syllabus, may be here. mentioned. In general, its results were the same as Galton's. He found a sort of rhythm in the imagery of his subjects. (3:504.) He says that "the most striking phenomenon shown is the intimate relation of imagery and attention, and the effect of the latter on the various phases and characteristics of the former." (3:505.) A little lower average of imagining power was found among those who stood highest in their respectivc classes than among their classmates.

Perhaps there should be mentioned here French's study of the "Mental Imagery of Students" (1902) by means of Titchener's questionnaire on "Ideational Type." He found among Vassar students that individual differences were almost entirely a matter of degree. All could call up visual, auditory and tactile images, while only one or two lacked either taste, smell, temperature or motor images. This, however, he thought, might be due partly to the fact that all the subjects were young women.) (25:55.)

In 1880 appeared Stricker's "Studien über die Sprachvorstellungen." Thinking silently (das stille Denken) and word ideation (das Wortvorstellen) are for him the same thing. (58:9.)

The sound image forms no part of his word image. (58:20.) He also excludes all visual images of printed or written forms. (58:20.) To him (it is self-evident that taste, smell or touch images do not enter into the word image.) He therefore concludes that "word images are motor imáges." (58:33.) He believes, moreover, that anatomical considerations make probable "the hypothesis that the word images consist in the consciousness of impulse which are sent out from the speech centre to the muscles." (58:30.)

Stricker's "Studien über die Bewegungsvorstellungen" (1882) is, like his study of word images, mostly the result of personal introspection. His general standpoint is the same. Muscle-feeling is a prerequisite to motion, and by muscle-feeling one is to understand the feeling, or the perception, which we receive from our own muscles. (57:7.) He can image to himself no movement without muscle-feeling. (57:24.) He distinctly changes his attitude as to the substrate of these "Muskelgefühle," however. He says that whether the muscle-feelings arise from motor nerves, or from sensory nerves, or from both at the same time may be permitted to remain uncertain. (57:9.)

At the same time that these investigations were going on in England and Germany, V. Egger, in France, was studying