me he will learn that which he comes to learn. And this is prudence in affairs private as well as public; he will learn to order his own house in the best manner, and he will be able to speak and act in affairs of state." (Plato, Protagoras, 318D.) At first they gave only individual instruction chiefly in rhetoric (Zeller Pre-Soc. Phil., 1, 78) and dialectic, but gradually the number of subjects taught increased and their work was organized into that of definite institutions of learning, the rhetorical schools. The amalgamation of these schools of philosophy and rhetoric into an institution resembling somewhat a modern university, took place by slow stages and was consummated only after Athens had become incorporated in the Roman empire.

Unfortunately the organization of the schools of philosophy, while economizing the effort devoted to teaching and learning, seemed to restrict originality of thought. In the rhetorical schools less and less attention was paid to training to meet the demands of actual life, indeed with the political subjection of Athens to Macedonia in the 4th, and to Rome in the 2nd century the needs which had led to the establishment of these schools lost their urgency. The schools of philosophy turned from the original investigation of the great problems to the exposition of the views of their respective founders. The schools grew, however, in numbers. The same conquests which had cost Athens her political independence enormously widened the influence of her culture. "Out of the ruins of the Macedonian universal empire there grew up five monarchies in which Greek was the language of the court and the government, of inscriptions and coinage, and of the educated classes, and in some of which Grecian art, literature and learning reached a high development (Ploetz, Epitome of Universal Hist., 77). With the loss of military power and independence Athens clave the more closely to that which still was left, her position as the world's great centre of culture. With her freedom the age of great inspiration had passed away forever, but it was succeeded by an age only less brilliant of savants, of commentators, of rhetoricians and sophists. "These," says Petit de Julleville, "seemed to make their rendezvous at Athens from the extremities of the earth, attracted, no doubt, by her famous name, her glorious history; her boasted monuments and the memory still living of so many great men; but sensible also to the beauty of situation, the charm of climate, to the politeness of manners, to the pleasures of all kinds which this city, freed of ordinary business cares, offered to the prolonged leisure of its inhabitants." (L'école d'Athénes, p. 2.) With them came great numbers of students from many different foreign countries.

Prominent among the student body were the

ephebes of Athens. This body had meanwhile been undergoing great changes. The political misfortunes of Athens had made it increasingly difficult for any but the wealthiest young men to devote two years to military training. As Athens sank into the position of a mere province the custom became of less and less practical importance. Hence the period was reduced from two years to one, later service was made entirely voluntary and the ephebic body became correspondingly few in number and aristocratic in character. Later still, foreigners, presumably of great wealth, were admitted. With the waning of the importance of Athens in world politics and the centring of the patriotic pride of her citizens upon her rank as a centre of learning, attendance at the famous schools came to be prescribed as part of the duties of the ephebic year. With the further development of the university, the ephebic body degenerated into something similar to a modern students' society.

The combination of the different schools into a single institution and the recognition of this as a great imperial university would naturally be furthered by the favor and support of the imperial government, especially during the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines. The munificence of private patrons such as Herodes Atticus, no doubt contributed to the same end. After several periods of alternating decline and revival the university was finally closed in 529 A. D. by Justinian.

RÉSUMÉ ON THE SCHOOLS OF ATHENS.

The work of the Greek non-professional schools consisted essentially of an organization of educational influences and activities that had long been operating in the family and in the general social life of the people. The school did not supplant but merely supplemented the earlier educational institutions.

The centres of cultural influence in ancient Athens, and particularly during the 5th and 4th centuries B. C., were unusually numerous and powerful. The culture of the Greeks was to a greater extent native than is the case with that of modern civilized peoples of Western Europe and America. It was not associated with a foreign tongue. For these reasons the school was probably not even so essential a factor in education in Athens as it is in modern civilizations.

The schools of the Athenians did not have the elaborate organization of the modern public school. Those schools which gave more than elementary instruction in reading and writing were attended only by the children of a small proportion of the population.

Teachers, both elementary and secondary, seem to have been of inferior social rank.

The opinions of philosophical writers on education, such as

Plato, seem to have had little influence upon the work of the schools.

The two most powerful factors in determining the character of the course of study in the schools were, on the one hand, the tendency to give the child such instruction and training as would best adjust him to the social conditions amidst which he was to live, and, on the other, a tendency to be guided by tradition.

The preponderance of the latter resulted in the maintenance of the so-called 'old education.' The preponderance of the former during the period of intellectual awakening that followed the close of the Persian wars led to the growth of the 'new education.'

This free adaptation of school work to actual needs not only modified the course of study of the secondary schools, but brought into existence new.educational institutions, the schools of the sophists.

II.

THE SCHOOLS OF ALEXANDRIA.

The conquests of Alexander disseminated the Greek civilization, which had reached its highest development in Athens, throughout much of Asia and Africa. As a result important centres of learning grew up in Pergamon, Rhodes, Alexandria and elsewhere. In Alexandria Greek culture underwent certain modifications which it is important for us to note in tracing the history of our non-professional schools.

The Conditions of Development. The cultural activities of this later Alexandrian period were strikingly different from those of the age of Pericles.

The difference was due to the decidedly different conditions under which they were carried on. The supreme achievements of the Athenians in art, literature and philosophy were the work of a free people. The poets and thinkers of Alexandria were under a despotism which made spontaneity of expression impossible. The poetry and art, science and philosophy of Athens were the product of impulses shared in by the mass of the citizens. In Alexandria culture was confined chiefly to a relatively small class for the most part foreign to the country and patronized by the court. The tone of life in Athens was determined by one race, the Athenians. In Alexandria Greeks stood with Jews and other oriental peoples on a similar footing. Finally some attach importance to the fact that the great Athenians lived in a region abounding in natural beauty, a feature wanting to the sandy shores on which Alexandria was built. Says Mahaffy, "But if as a commercial site Alexandria was unrivalled,

we cannot say much for its natural beauty. A sandy region, without wooding, without hills and a tideless sea, but with no far mountains or islands in sight-what could be more dreary to those accustomed to the enchanting views from the Greek and Asiatic coast towns? We know that the Greeks of classical days said little about the picturesque. Nevertheless its unconscious effect upon their poetry and upon other forms of art is clearly discernible, and perhaps not a little of the unpicturesqueness of Alexandrian culture is due to the absence of this vague but powerful influence. The grandeur of solemn mountains, the mystery of deep forests, the sweet homeliness of babbling streams, the scent of deep meadows and fragrant shrubs all this was familiar even to the city people of Hellenic days. . . . But the din and the dust of the new capital. . . . were only relieved by a few town parks and gymnasia. . . . . And, if there was retirement and leisure within the university, it was eminently the retirement among books-the natural home for pedants and grammarians." (Greek Life and Thought, 177-178.) These conditions account for the fact that we find in Alexandrian literature, excepting perhaps Theocritus, little evidence of true poetic inspiration; the poetry is imitative and selfconscious.

The Alexandrian School and the Character of its Work. Of the elementary and secondary school work at Alexandria we have no record. It was probably of little importance for the mass of the people were non-Greek. The great influence of Alexandria upon the culture and school work of Rome and of later times was the result of the work of the members of a relatively small and exclusive body of scholars and writers, chiefly Greek, living and working under the patronage of the Ptolemies in a great institution of learning known as the MuThe circumstances under which they worked were, as shown above, unfavorable to original literary or artistic achievement. Their most important contributions to literature are due to the attention they paid to the collection, arrangement and critical study of the great productions of the earlier Greek civilization.

seum.

The first Ptolemy, possibly at the suggestion of his friend, Demetrius, and influenced, perhaps, by the aims of his former master, Alexander the Great, founded a great library in which he collected the writings of the Greeks and of other civilized peoples. With this was connected later a corporation of learned men supported by royal endowment. "The Museum," says Strabo, "is a part of the palaces. It has a public hall and a place furnished with seats, and a large hall, in which the men of learning, who belong to the Museum, take their common meal. This community possessed also property in common;

and a priest, formerly appointed by the kings, but at present by Cæsar, presides over the Museum." (17, 8.) If, as some believe (for instance Mahaffy, Empire of the Ptolemies, 95), some of these took up the work of teaching, the whole institution would resemble somewhat a modern university. The bringing together of so many manuscripts containing varying versions of the works of classical authors led to great critical activity. Here were produced the first critical editions of Homer. Through this intensive study of classical literature the sciences of grammar and philology were brought to a high degree of development. Thus was formed a body of literary and grammatical erudition which constituted a large proportion of the material of instruction in the schools of Rome and of subsequent civilizations.

Of no less importance were the achievements of the Alexandrian scholars in pure mathematics and in the natural sciences. Here was completed Euclid's treatise on geometry used even up to the present as a school text. Here the science of algebra was developed by Diophantus, and here also important discoveries in mechanics, geography, astronomy and anatomy were made by Hero, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Herophilos, and others. The scientific lore of the schools of Roman and later times owed, probably, its form and substance more to Alexandria than to any other ancient centre of culture. (Gow, Hist. of Math., 194-5.)

The peculiar culture conditions at Alexandria led, in the first and second centuries A. D., to its becoming the first great centre of higher Christian theological education. Here we find the greatest of those early Christian schools of theology, the successors of which throughout the greater part of the middle ages performed in society the function of the general, non-professional school.

III.

THE SCHOOLS OF ROME.

Although this elaboration of Greek culture which took place in Alexandria powerfully influenced the school work of later times, nevertheless the further history of the schools for the young, the development of which in Athens we have already noted, is to be traced out, not in Alexandria, but in Rome.

A narrow but powerful system of extra-school education and an elementary school for giving instruction, mainly in reading and writing and possibly calculation, had developed among the Romans, in the main, independently of the direct influence of the Greeks, though, of course, the Roman alphabet, among other things, was derived from early intercourse with the latter