Drawing by artificial light should be avoided; if necessary, then there should be an abundance of diffused light and individual lamps at each desk. Continuous work of the eyes in drawing should be broken by opportunities for looking at things at a distance. And, in general, the well accepted rules in regard to the hygiene of vision should be regarded. Drawing should not be given as a home task, at least not in the lower grades. And children should be taught that correct drawing is only possible with a correct posture. Baginsky (1) thinks it more difficult to get a correct posture in the drawing class than in the writing class because the children are so much interested in drawing that they forget all about their position. Much of the work should be done standing, The pupils should be warned against putting their fingers in their mouths when stained with colors. Care must be exercised in the use of thumb-tacks etc. A few general points should be emphasized :

The Principles of Motor Training. All the principles of motor training should be observed. The work at first should be determinated by the structure of the child's arm and hand, the condition of development, and the instinctive need for expression. Here as in general, fine and difficult work is out of place with beginners. This hygienic rule is quite in agreement with the teaching of psychology. The studies of Barnes (3, 4) and others show that at first the reproduction of large and essential features is natural and interesting to children.

Age of Beginning. As regards the age of beginning the work, there is great difference of opinion. In Germany, systematic work in drawing is begun at the age of ten, in France at an earlier age. The more important question is in regard to the kind of work and the method employed. If the work is made large and free, and is not continued for too long a period, it may be quite suitable for young children even in the kindergarten stage. Studies by Lukens (33) and others have shown that very young children spontaneously express their thoughts by means of drawing. This has distinct educational value, and is a normal, healthful activity.

It is noteworthy that even artistic expression often begins at a relatively early age. Crichton Browne calls attention to the number of artists who have exercised themselves in manual expression at an early age. "Giotto was discovered sketching on a stone one of the sheep which he was shepherding when only ten years old. Gainsborough gave proof of marked talent for landscape painting when scarcely fourteen. Canova modelled exquisitely in butter when thirteen years old. Turner exhibited in the Royal Academy at the age of fifteen. Sir

Edwin Landseer gained the prize of the Society of Arts when he was thirteen. George Moreland had pictures accepted by the Academy when not yet ten. Thorwaldsen had made a reputation as a carver of the figure-heads of ships when thirteen, and Wilkie drew spirited portraits of his school fellows when only seven." Kerschensteiner (26) reproduces pictures made by Albrecht Dürer and Hans Thomas when thirteen and fifteen years of age; and in his own collection are remarkable drawings by boys eight and thirteen years of age.

Development of artistic ability at an early age does not seem to be abnormal. The demand of hygiene is merely that artistic activity in the early years shall be spontaneous.

If by instruction in drawing is meant the technique of method, then, as Dr. Schmid-Monnard maintains, it should not begin before the age of ten or eleven. Instruction before this time is apt to be mere drill, and likely actually to injure an interest in drawing. This postponement of drawing is required by pedagogy as well as by hygiene. Prof. Barnes (3) was the first to show by the drawings of a large number of children that interest in the technique comes late, and he rightly warns teachers that they may so emphasize the grammar of drawing in the early years as to destroy genuine interest in the subject. Drawing up to the age of eight or ten should be spontaneous and individual.

The Sequence of Instruction. How should drawing begin? The child should answer this question. The spontaneous activity of children is instructive; it is large, free, hygienic, with concentration, but for short periods, with natural ebb and flow of attention. The products of this activity represent life and action. On the other hand our systematic courses in motor training, even in gymnastics, are apt to be formal, mechanical, artificial, mathematical, beginning with the technique and with geometrical figures, and representing the static and the conventional. From the logical adult point of view the first thing is to learn to draw a straight line. Many will recall the rows of lines in the old copybooks. A common exercise was to draw a line connecting two points. The straight line, however, is not the most natural line, and it is the one line that the artist seldom or never makes. One should begin rather with the large curves that are easily made on account of the structure of the arm. Mr. Cooke (15) in his A B C of drawing notes this and gives some very sensible advice in regard to the work for young children. According to his view, scribble, the result of the child's free, spontaneous activity, is of great value.

"The line," he writes, "the child makes naturally in scribbling is not straight but curved, not an arc but a graduated curve. Its shape is determined by the structure of the arm

and perhaps the movement. If the hand is stretched out in front to its fullest extent and is moved outwards, it draws a line in the air which passes gradually from nearly straight in front to a rapid curve on the outer limits. This line, which is a result of the structure of the arm, is the easiest to make and is pleasing to produce, for the child repeats it frequently." When the hand is brought back, a sort of ellipse or oval is formed. In his free scribble, the child often makes this or parts of it. It is the characteristic form of living things, the line of Greek art, "the first line made by the child and made of necessity from the structure of its arm."

Again, whole arm movements should be employed as is natural to the child when scribbling. Rapid action over a smooth surface is more easily controlled than slow movement.

"Non-resisting materials the child selects, and the pavement artist knows their value. The misty window-pane, the seashore sand, the wet finger-tip, the leading of water over a smooth surface are some of the child's suggestions. Chalk and blackboard, brush and color, charcoal or colored chalk on paper we can adopt. Brush and water on the blackboard are the readiest materials for us; whatever can be most easily used should be used; drawing in the air with the finger tip is not to be despised." (15, p. 149.) Children should be given ample opportunity for such large and free exercise. Prof. Geddes has a room with walls on which his children can draw; and he recommends a room with sides all of blackboards.

Dr. Lukens (34), on the basis of his careful study of the drawings of young children, distinguishes four periods of development. The period of scribble, the period of artistic illusion, the period of self-consciousness, and the rebirth of adolescence. The first period is until about the fourth or fifth year; the child's interest is greatest in the objects themselves or the drawings of others, but he can produce nothing himself but scribble. In the writer's opinion, Dr. Lukens does injustice to the child's interest in his own activity at this period, in drawing for its own sake. Even at this period the child shows many potentialities and his activity is prophetic of that of later periods. But in any case there should be ample opportunity for scribbling.

The second period, extending perhaps to the age of twelve or fourteen, is the period of imagination, of "artistic illusion," the golden age of drawing, when the child delights to draw out of his own head, but feels no need to draw from nature the objects actually before his eyes. "It is a fundamental fault of the drawing course," says Dr. Lukens (34, p. 946), "that it ignores this period of development and destroys the golden age by leading the pupil into temptation. The drawing

teacher admonishes him: Open your eyes and see the tree and the fruit thereof, as they really are. Draw the apple exactly as you see it. The pupil does so, and his eyes are opened, and he sees his nakedness, and is filled with shame. The divine gift of artistic illusion vanishes; he awakes to find that he cannot draw. Then follows the curse all his life long. In sorrow he must draw from the objects all the days of his life. Painful copying, spiritless imitation is the start, and unto the same the pupil ever returns."

When children fall into the use of conventional forms then they have already lost the power of artistic illusion, and the time has come to begin drawing from nature.

The third period, from perhaps twelve or fourteen to fifteen or sixteen, is the self-conscious or critical period. The zest in drawing as a means of expressing thought is destroyed without the pupils being able to draw well enough to wish to practice any more. Barnes's studies indicate that the desire to draw decreases after the age of thirteen or fourteen. Drawing teachers probably can testify that children often make little progress after twelve.

The fourth period is that of adolescence, where some experience a rebirth of creative power. The art activity is worth while for its own sake. The golden age of childhood is revived. The work itself is self-satisfying; and some become artists by profession.

The dangers to be guarded against are an artificial environment, the repression of a natural activity, the premature development of the self-conscious, critical stage, and, in general, the dwarfing that comes from lack of opportunity for normal expression in drawing at the different periods.

Vision. Drawing is not injurious to the eyes under proper conditions. But tests of vision should be made before formal instruction is begun. Color blindness is frequent among children, as many investigations here and in Europe have shown. In this country Jeffreys (25a) reported, in 1880, on an investigation of 27,927 school children for color blindness. He found among 14,469 boys 4.202% were color blind, although among 13,458 girls only 0.066%. Recently investigations of the color sense have been made by Monroe and others. All show the frequency of the defect. Color blindness may be either complete or partial; in the former case, there is no perception of color, in the latter, there is red-green or blue-yellow blindness. Sometimes there is only weakness of the color sense. Complete color blindness is apparently rare. The test for vision should include a test for color blindness. It should be noted that we cannot test properly by asking the names of the colors, the proper method is the use of the Holmgren worsteds.

Posture. The necessity of an erect posture in drawing has been made a subject of special consideration in Germany. The section on drawing of the Berlin Teachers Association has formulated the following rules, with the advice of Dr. Cohn of Breslau, Dr. v. Esmarch of Kiel, Dr. Berlin of Stuttgart, and Dr. Schubert of Nuremberg. (29, p. 1016.)

1. The position of the upper part of the body should be natural and without strain, as free and erect as possible. The head should be inclined only a little and toward the side, and bent forward only very slightly. Both shoulders should remain at equal height. The line connecting them should be parallel to the edge of the table. The legs should be kept apart. The lower part of the leg should be kept vertical, the feet squarely on the soles.

The drawing surface should be placed directly in front of the medial line of the pupil.

3. The left forearm should lie on the table, and can be stretched forward when necessary until the lower part of the upper arm is on the surface of the table. But the forearm should not be used as a support for the upper part of the body. The left hand should lightly hold the drawing surface.

4. The right forearm should be so placed that free movement is possible. It should neither be placed firmly against the body, nor serve as a support for the upper part of the body.

5. The right hand should be supported lightly on the little finger. The hand joint should not touch the drawing surface, and the hand should never cover the line to be drawn.

To these rules may be added the directions of the same Teachers' Association in regard to holding the pencil: The hand should grasp the pencil like a penholder with three fingers. The pencil should be so long that it has a support on the hand between the thumb and the index finger, and can be grasped at not less than from two to three cm. from the point. In sketching drawings the pencil should be inclined at less than a right angle to the drawing surface. In copying drawings the pencil should be grasped at a shorter distance from the point and held more nearly vertical. (29, p. 1015.)

Length of Period. It is important that the period of work in drawing should not be too long. When the work causes nervousness it should be postponed; especially where fine work is required and attention to details is necessary the period should be short. With such precautions the work is a healthful occupation.

Apparatus. The apparatus for drawing is very simple. Large pencils or crayons and suitable paper are all that is necessary. Very satisfactory substitutes for blackboards-such as