and grammatical training he had received in the development of oratorical skill. There were two courses, an elementary and an advanced. It was a matter of dispute among the Romans as to whether certain of the preparatory steps in the rhetorical course should be given by the grammaticus or the rhetor. (Quin. Inst. of Or., 2, 1.) Suetonius states that some of the earliest grammatici gave to their students the whole of their rhetorical training. (Lives of Gram. IV.)

The elementary course given in the grammar school consisted first, of the narration by the pupils of short, simple stories, usually fables. This was followed by the paraphrasing of passages from the poets, sometimes close, sometimes free. "He who shall successfully perform this exercise," says Quintilian, "will be able to learn anything." "Let sentences, also," he continues, "and chriae, and ethologies be written by the learner, with the occasions of the sayings added according to the grammarians, because these depend upon reading. The nature of all these is similar, but their form different; because a sentence is a general proposition; ethology is confined to certain persons. Of chriae several sorts are specified: one similar to a sentence which is introduced with a simple statement 'He said' or 'He was accustomed to say;' another which includes its subject in an answer: 'He, being asked,' or 'When this remark was made to him replied;' a third, not unlike the second, commences 'When some one had' not 'said,' but 'done, something.' An exercise commonly connected with this was that of reconstructing the sentences so that the name of the person concerning whom the anecdote was told would occur in the different cases. (Quin. Inst., I, 9.)

The advanced preparatory course seems to have been given by the grammatici, although Quintilian contends that it should be given by the rhetor. It included a greater variety of exercises. The list given by Hermogenes is as follows: 1. Fables, freer renditions of these were expected than in the elementary course. 2. Stories differing from the preceding in being more probable, the characters being gods or men. 3. Chriae, which differed decidedly from the elementary exercise of the same name. It was a formal discussion of a thought attributed rightly or wrongly to some eminent man. The plan, as in most of the other exercises, had become conventional. The discussion opened with a eulogy of the author, then a paraphrase of the thought, thirdly, exposition of the thought, fourthly, investigation of the contrary, followed by comparison, illustration confirmation, the whole concluding with an exhortation.

The next exercise mentioned in Hermogenes' list is the

refutation or confirmation of a tale. The order of discussion was as follows: (1) An invective against the author. If the tale were, for instance, that of Daphne the student would proceed to say that "The author has no respect for the gods and deserves none himself," etc., etc.

(2) The story. Daphne, born of a river god, and Terra, the earth, was beloved by Apollo, and being pursued, was changed into a tree, etc.

(3) The Refutation. (a) Impossibility. How could the child be nourished by the river and the earth? (b) Impropriety. How could a god experience love? (c) Inconsistency. How could a mortal outwit a god? (d) Uselessness. Why should the earth anger a god?

(4) Concluding invective. (Jullien, Chap. VIII.)

These illustrations will give a clearer idea of the exceedingly formal character of the work. The remaining exercises of the course will be mentioned briefly. They consisted of: 5. Commonplaces, invective against vices or praise of virtues. 6. Praise and Censure. This exercise differed from the preceding only in referring to particular individuals. 7. Comparison (a) of men as, Achilles and Hector, or (b), of virtues, as, justice and generosity. 8. Theses or general questions as, Should a man marry? Is country life to be preferred to city life?

Other Subjects. 'Grammar' occupied so large a space in the secondary school curriculum as to leave little room for anything else. The attention paid to the fine arts and the sciences was not on account of their culture value, but because of their utility. Music and dancing were prized only in so far as they gave ease and grace of manner to the orator. The former of these arts improved his voice. (Quin. I, 10, 22.) Instruction was given by special teachers and usually in the privacy of the home, for the practice of these arts elsewhere than in the timehonored religious ceremonies was not considered to comport with the dignity of a Roman citizen. Sculpture, as involving manual labor, was despised, and the art of painting was little cultivated.

The sciences were held in somewhat higher esteem, presumably because of their greater practical utility. Those studied in the secondary school course were included under the term 'geometry.' "Geometry," writes Quintilian (I, 10, 34), "is divided between numbers and figures." A little farther on (I, 10, 46), he continues, "Need I add that geometry raises itself still higher, so as even to ascertain the system of the world? When it demonstrates by calculations, the regular and appointed movements of the celestial bodies, we learn that, in that system, there is nothing unordained or fortuitous." Under

geometry, then, were included the sciences distinguished by us as arithmetic, geometry, geography and astronomy. The word 'geometry' retained, it will be noted, much of this breadth of meaning throughout the middle ages. The Romans, characteristically enough, limited the study of these subjects to their practical applications in everyday life. Cicero, in speaking of geometry, says, "We have reduced the limits of this science and we expect of it no other benefit than that of knowing how to measure or count." These subjects were studied only in the brief periods which could be spared during the school day from the all-important literary and rhetorical studies. Instruction was given by a special teacher, the 'geometer.' The rarity of mention of this teacher in Roman literature indicates that his position was a subordinate one. The arithmetic was a continuation of the work of the 'calculator.' The geometry (in the narrower sense) consisted chiefly in exercises in mensuration. The reason for this is given by Quintilian (I, 10, 36). "Knowledge of linear figures, too, is frequently required in causes; for law-suits occur concerning boundaries and measures." Even less attention was paid to the study of astronomy. Its chief practical application seems to have been in the construction of the calendar.

THE ROMAN SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC.

The emphasis laid upon oratorical training in the Roman grammar schools, and the reasons for it, have already been discussed. Every schoolboy, says Juvenal (Sat. X, 160), is ambitious of rivalling some day Tully or Demosthenes. Yet only a small proportion of the grammar school students were to become orators. Its function was to afford a liberal education such as the social life of the upper and middle classes demanded. (Jullien, Prof. d. Litt., 319.) The training of the school was oratorical because the orator had become the Roman ideal of the well educated man.

Those who entered fields of activity such as law or politics, which necessitated the actual practice of oratory, entered a school of rhetoric where they received a more specific training. We have already noticed that an efficient system of training in the art of oratory, that is, in rhetoric, was first introduced among the Romans by the Greeks (Suetonius, Rhet. I) who, for a considerable period, enjoyed practically a monopoly of the teaching of the subject. Interest in the subject increases until, in the first centuries of the Christian era, it overshadowed all other subjects in the schools of Greece and of Rome. The establishment of the empire and the seizure of absolute power by the emperors deprived the art of any real value in the field of politics, yet this did not affect the popularity of the subject

among the upper classes. From being pursued as a practical training for a profession, it came more and more to be cultivated as a fine art.

The work of the schools of rhetoric consisted very largely of exercises in declamation and debate. Procedure had become somewhat conventionalized and elaborate, resembling in this respect that of the grammar schools which we have described. In fact, the methods of the latter were derived largely from the former. Suetonius explains this (Lives of Gram., IV). "The early grammarians taught rhetoric also whence it

arose, I think, that in later times, although the two professions had then become distinct, the old custom was retained, or the grammarians introduced into their teaching some of the elements required for public speaking, such as the problem, the periphrasis, the choice of words, description of character, and so on." The narrow range of topics is satirized by Juvenal (Sat., 7). "Do you teach declamation? Oh what a heart of steel must Vectius have, when his numerous class kills cruel tyrants! For all that the boy has just conned over at his seat, he will stand up and spout-the same stale theme in the same sing-song. It is the reproduction of the cabbage that wears out the master's life."

The character of the rhetorical study among the Romans of the second century A. D. and the importance which they attached to it are reflected in the following incident related by Aulus Gellius:

"During the summer holidays, being desirous to retire from the heat of the city, I accompanied Antonius Julianus, the rhetorician, to Naples. There happened to be a young man of fortune, studying and exercising himself with his preceptors in order to plead causes at Rome and accomplish himself in Latin eloquence; this person entreated Julianus to hear him declaim. Julianus accordingly went to hear him and I attended him. The young man appeared; and, beginning an exordium with rather more arrogance and presumption than became his years, he demanded the subject of controversy to be proposed. There was with us a follower of Julianus, an ingenious and accomplished young man, who took offence that he should, in the presence of Julianus, dare to risk his reputation by the extreme peril of inconsiderate speaking. By way of trial, therefore, he proposed a controversy not very consistent which the Greeks call 'Aporos;' but which in Latin may not very improperly be called 'inexplicable.' (The question was 'Seven judges try a prisoner, the majority to decide. Three decide for death, two for banishment, and two for a fine.) The young man as soon as he heard this without at all considering the matter, or waiting to know what was to be proposed, began

with wonderful rapidity to assert I know not what principles upon this question, and to pour out expressions distorted from their meaning and a noisy torrent of high-sounding words. All his companions who were accustomed to hear him applauded him with noisy clamor. Julianus all this while was in the greatest perplexity, blushing with confusion. After he had gabbled out many thousands of sentences, we took our leave. His friends and acquaintances following Julianus, desired to know his opinion. 'Do not,' he replied, 'inquire my opinion, without controversy this young man is eloquent.'" The institution by Vespasian of the custom of paying the salaries of certain eminent professors of rhetoric from the public treasury (Suetonius, Vesp., 18), inaugurated a movement similar to that carried out in Athens by which the schools of rhetoric were organized into a state institution of higher learning.

The Romans desirous of a highly finished education rounded out their school careers with a year or two of study at the famous schools at Athens, Rhodes and elsewhere.

ENCOURAGEMENT AND SUPPORT OF ROMAN SCHOOLS BY

THE STATE.

The schools of grammar and rhetoric that we have described gained a footing not only in Rome but throughout Italy and even in distant provinces such as Gaul, Spain and Africa. As in Athens, these schools were at first strictly private enterprises (Cicero, Commonwealth, IV, 3). But owing to different causes the encouragement and support given to the schools by the government and the upper classes rapidly increased. Custom prevented the aristocratic Roman from engaging in trade, and as the army became more and more mercenary, there was little attraction in a military career. The only promising field of activity left open to him was in the civil service of the state and the most direct way to preferment in this led through the schools of literature. On the other hand the state could not long overlook the services which these schools were rendering. They tended not only to make Roman subjects less barbarous and more lettered and hence more inclined toward peaceful and orderly lives (Boissier, Roman Africa, 240) but by revealing every where the same great literatures and by developing like tastes they created a bond of sympathy among the widely different peoples of the vast and almost unwieldy empire, which aided powerfully in the maintenance of its integrity. Agricola hastened to make permanent the incorporation of Britain in the empire by having the sons of the chiefs educated in the liberal arts (Tacitus Agricola, 21). No sooner were the Gauls conquered than Cæsar opened a school at Autun. Juvenal (Sat.