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thought reliable; 1,153 were open to suspicion. All, however, were used. The work of computation was done by Prof. Bartholomai (4) of the Statistical Bureau of Berlin, who was for many years editor of the mathematical part of Lüben's Jahresbericht, and who later independently published some observations on the results. It was found that boys and girls, home and kindergarten children must be treated differently in school. Girls surpass boys in acquiring those ideas that are most frequently met by young pupils. In general the conclusion was that children were not properly taught in their homes, and that school appliances were ill suited to the scholars in any urban community.

The third study of this kind was made by K. Lange, school director in Plauen, in 1879 (33). As the interest of the Berlin Verein lay in discovering what ideas are wanting in the minds of six-year-old pupils, Lange's problem was to find what ideas they possess, because these must furnish the starting point for further education. He says: "It is the sphere of perception especially that is to be most carefully investigated. Far from considering the child's mind a tabula rasa the prudent teacher will adapt his instruction to the ideas which the pupils possess, and of them he will make a firm foundation for advanced instruction. He would build upon the sand should he begin by presenting too elementary matter or, should he too optimistically assume that a sufficient foundation has already been laid and teach boldly on that assumption." Further, he says that the school-man is able to work most satisfactorily only when he has at hand comprehensive statistical computations for the purpose of determining what can and what cannot be presupposed when instruction begins.

By the method of oral questionnaire Lange examined 500 pupils of the city of Plauen and 300 from the country schools. He found that the girls had acquired fewer ideas from their environment but that they had a more decided religious disposition than the boys.

This work was the immediate occasion of the study carried out by Hartmann in Annaberg in 1884 (26), although he got his idea originally from Sigismund's Kind und Well-the passage already quoted in which the author expresses his longing for the application of the statistical method to the study of man. This was an examination of 1,312 children aged 534 to 634 years. Hartmann was working in the interests of a scientific pedagogy. He hoped to establish a good foundation for the first year's instruction and to make possible thereby suitable choice of lesson material such as no text-book at that time presented. He originally had but fourteen questions on his list but later added others from those used by the Berliner pädago

gische Verein in 1869. This work extended over five years, from 1880 to 1884, and the results are published in two editions; the first in 1885, the second in 1890.

While Hartmann was working thus in the Annaberg schools, a similar investigation, begun in 1880, was carried on by President G. S. Hall, in Boston (20). This work was modeled after that in Berlin, but the list of questions, of course, had to be modified to suit the American environment. This was found to be a matter of considerable difficulty but it was executed with great care. The examination was confined to children who were just entering school, and was conducted by teachers of considerable experience in the kindergarten and who therefore might be supposed to be skillful in dealing with children. Proper precautions seem to have been taken in having the teachers report to, and confer frequently with, Dr. Hall. Only✓ three children, instead of fourteen as in Berlin, were present at each examination. The inferences drawn from this investigation are: (1) "There is next to nothing of pedagogic value the knowledge of which it is safe to assume at the outset of school life. (2) The best preparation parents can give their children for good school training is to make them acquainted with natural objects, especially with the sights and sounds of the country, and send them to good and hygienic, as distinguished from the most fashionable kindergartens. (3) Every teacher on starting with a new class or in a new locality, to make sure that his efforts along some lines are not utterly lost, should undertake to explore children's minds with all the tact and ingenuity he can command and acquire, to determine exactly what is already known; and every normal-school pupil should undertake work of the same kind as an essential part of his training. (4) The concepts which are most common in the children of a given locality are the earliest to be acquired, while the rarer ones are later." The work was laborious. It involved about fifty thousand items in all. It confirmed earlier reports concerning the difference in mental content between boys and girls, declared the advantage of the kindergarten child over his companions who entered the schools from the home, and the superiority in equipment of the country pupil over the child from the city. In many ways this justifies itself as a work worthy of attention and imitation. It was undertaken, the author says, principally for its practical application in education.

The large percentage of Boston children who did not possess the ideas sought for is surprising.

In 1883, after Supt. J. M. Greenwood (18) of Kansas City, Mo., had read Dr. Hall's original report of this investigation, which appeared in the Princeton Review, he undertook the

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solution of the same problem by the same method of oral questionnaire using sixty-nine questions from Dr. Hall's list. He anticipated that children of six years would be found much better stocked with ideas than Dr. Hall's results would indicate, and indeed his figures do show a much fuller mental content in the case of 678 pupils of the lowest primary class of his city than Dr. Hall found in Boston children. It must be considered, however, that his inquiry was made in March, April and May so that one cannot determine how much of the richer content is due to the school influences of the five preceding months. In questionnaire work the conditions of observation must be as carefully guarded as in other forms of scientific research.

This concludes our account of the oral questionnaire. For the most part it has been used for practical purposes in educational work. We shall now speak of the specific questionnaire syllabus as applied in the study of Genetic Psychology-the form with which readers are most familiar at present.

We have seen that Fechner in his study of mental imagery, Darwin in his study of emotions, and Galton in "Inquiries into Human Faculty," as well as Hericourt in his investigation into the character of hand movements in writing and drawing, used the specific questionnaire. All these were problems concerned with adult human psychology.

As Dr. Hall has said (20), one of the requisites for successful investigation is to have a definite problem in view. him more than to any other, that we owe the development of the specific questionnaire syllabus in the study of children with a view to obtaining the data for a systematic Genetic Psychology.

A comprehensive syllabus for child study published by him in 1887, was found too cumbersome for practical use. Miss Wiltse's study of children's lies (48), which appeared in 1882, is one of the first contributions in America growing out of a specific syllabus.

In an article on the "Moral and Religious Training of Children' (22), Dr. Hall first drew attention to the interrelation of adolescence, education and religion. Another article by Dr. Burnham in the Pedagogical Seminary, entitled "The Study of Adolescence" (8), went far in turning the minds of educators and psychologists toward this fruitful but uncultivated fieldthe psychology of the youth.

These were the beginnings of important articles and books on religious psychology, many of them products of the specific questionnaire. Prominent among these are Professor Leuba's paper on the "Psychology of Religious Phenomena" (34), and Starbuck's "Psychology of Religion" (42).

Such an immeasurable field as is suggested by the terms

"Adolescence" and "Religious Psychology" can be covered only under the condition of organization for the work. In an editorial in the Pedagogical Seminary, Dr. Hall (23) in commenting on the organization of the National Society for Child Study, which was founded in Chicago in the summer of 1893, suggests that, since no one alone can cover the whole field, it would be wise for each student who is interested to enter into correspondence with a specialist in one definite subject named by the society, and to work only under his advice. Just a year ✓ later Dr. Hall himself, in response to requests from many inquirers, published fifteen specific questionnaire syllabi. This reflects a demand for specialized investigation.

These syllabi were circulated in all parts of the country and over twenty thousand returns were received, not all of which have yet been sifted out for publication. The subjects of investigation for which these syllabi were designed, were as follows: (1) Anger; (2) Dolls; (3) Crying and laughing; (4) Toys and playthings; (5) Folk-lore among children; (6) Early forms of vocal expression; (7) The early Sense of Self; (8) Fears in Childhood and Youth; (9) Some common Traits and Habits; (10) Some common Automatisms, Nerve Signs etc.; (11) Feeling for objects of inanimate nature; (12) Feeling for objects of animate nature; (13) Children's appetites for foods; (14) Affection and its opposite states in children; (15) Moral and Religious experiences.

Most of the contributions from Dr. Hall and his students in Clark University, including the studies of children's pets, the moon in child thought, the study of children's curiosity, and their attitude toward flowers, belong at one place or another in this classification.

The systematization of this work by the creation of these ✓ specific questionnaire syllabi was followed by an editorial in the Pedagogical Seminary in which Dr. Hall declares (24): "Our programme is to gradually centre all study of Psychology, Philosophy, Ethics and perhaps other cognate branches about child study. This is not only in accordance with the evolutionary tendencies increasingly dominant in nearly every other field, but it will save the philosophical side of pedagogy from its present decline, and place education for the first time on a scientific basis and be the centre around which the education of the future will be centred.'

The contents of the Pedagogical Seminary and American Journal of Psychology throughout the years following this declaration, show how thoroughly the plan is being carrried out.

Most of this work has an anthropological flavor. Its authors describe it as Genetic Psychology, and it must, therefore, reflect much of the social and private life of primitive man. In

an editorial in the Pedagogical Seminary President Hall says: (25) "Closely connected with anthropology is Genetic Psychology and exact and careful child study by scientific observers. . . . Not only is it (child study) repeating stage by stage the history of the laboratory movement, but marking, as it does, the first advent of evolution in the study of the soul, it promises to equal the latter in importance, and to relegate much of the present adult psychology to those pages of history which preserve the aberrations and over-subtleties of vigorous but misdirected minds."

In keeping with what are conceived as the anthropological connections of Genetic Psychology many of those who have made contributions in this field since 1895 have discussed at great length the customs of primitive people, and have pointed out parallels between the behavior of these races and that of children in our own land, at different stages of development. A notable example is Dr. Hall's "Study of Fears" (21).

The more numerous the parallels found in a study of questionnaire returns and of the customs of ancient peoples or of barbarians of to-day, the more plausible is the theory of psychical evolution and of the recapitulation in the individual of the racial stages of development. The theory of mental recapitulation was not boldly stated at the outset of these questionnaire studies in Genetic Psychology, but is more or less in the background of some of the published results of the earlier investigations. In his report on the mental contents of Boston children Dr. Hall says (20): "We cannot accept without many qualifications the evolutionary dictum that the child's mental development should repeat that of the race." Considerably later one of his pupils employed the questionnaire to unearth some evidence on this point. J. O. Quantz, in his study of "Dendro-Psychoses," says (38): "If present circumstances were not a sufficient reason for present thoughts and feelings, then mind must have been, in some period of its evolution, subject to influences which left an impress that developed into more definite forms of instinct or action. It is not to be expected that any of these can be traced with certainty to its source."

In a study of "Hydro-Psychoses," by F. E. Bolton (6), a year later, mental recapitulation is again referred to as a guiding line for teachers, but it has never been claimed, even by the most enthusiastic, that it can be relied upon absolutely. Cephas Guillet, for instance, says in a long and sensible article on "Recapitulation and Education" (19): "It is earnestly to be hoped, however, that even after these recapitulatory stages have been established, it will not be attempted to make a stereotyped curriculum of them. For children show all

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