Greek geography reached its highest development in Ptolemy's work, written about 150 A. D. His system of astronomy commanded the world until long after being disproved by Copernicus, and his geography, translated and extended by the Arabs, was revived in Europe in the 15th century, when it formed the basis of a number of school geographies. The revival of the works of Strabo and Ptolemy was one of the important influences which brought about the great age of geographical discovery.

During this period Pomponius Mela wrote his "Chorographia," a work of three books. It was immensely popular during the middle ages. It consisted of a peculiar mixture of fact and fable.

During the centuries of the dark ages, trustworthy sources were forgotten, the fantastic and mythological were emphasized, and proved later to be most obstinate hindrances to scientific inquiry and geographical discovery. Nothing better represents the scientific barrenness of this period, its emphasis on idea rather than on fact, than the crude diagrammatical maps accepted by the best thinkers of the time.

The most notable books were "The Compilation of Marvels" by Solinus, and the religious cosmology of Cosmas. Solinus's book was taken mainly from Pliny and was composed largely of tales about birds, beasts, reptiles, etc. It was a great favorite during the middle ages. Cosmas's book was written to disprove the sphericity of the earth and to establish a biblical cosmography. He formed a complete system founded upon selected texts. During this period, too, travellers' tales were elaborated and popularized, and filled the common mind with a terror and ignorance of nature which was one of the prime causes of the isolation, poverty and barbarism of the middle ages.

During this period, geography was taught under geometry, one of the subjects of the quadrivium, which consisted of a few definitions of geometrical forms and an abridgement of Pliny's geography. (33-59.)

In 1524, Sebastian Munster published his "Geographia Universalis' which was founded upon Strabo, and Peter Appian, who used Ptolemy as his authority, wrote his "Cosmographia. These books held the field of Europe for more than a hundred years. In a few schools they were sometimes used as readers. (51-7.)

It was not, however, until the end of the sixteenth century that geography began to receive much attention in the schools. In 1582 Michael Meander published his "Orbis Terrae." It was a concise general description of the world (51-7) (58a-3). It was a step in advance because better adapted for school use. It was gladly taken up by schoolmasters and went through

many editions. It deserves the credit of being the first school text-book of geography of real value. It was used until the middle of the 17th century.

The next important book, "The Brief Questions from Old and New Geographies," was published by John Hübner in 1693. For many years Hübner's text-books on geography were used in Germany. Their method was adopted by other countries, and was used in a large number of school geographies until as late as 1890.

The following selection may serve as an example of Hübner's method:

I. "What is the position of Portugal?

As to Germany, it lies toward the west, and in its region it is the most western country of Europe. It is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and on the east by the Spanish provinces.

2.

What are the rivers of Portugal?

The Duro above, the Tagus in the middle, and the Guadiana below. 3. What are the places in Portugal to be noticed?

Lisbon, the capital city of the whole kingdom and the residence of the king, lies at the mouth of the Tagus.

Evora lies inland, and is a good fortress.

Braga has the archbishop.

4. Is there anything else about Portugal which it is necessary to know?

The country is mountainous and has need of grain. The people are mainly merchants. They are Catholics, yet there are many Jews there. The whole country is ruled by one king." (58a-9.)

About 1670, Bernhard Varenius wrote his "Geographia Generalis" and founded modern physical geography with its emphasis upon causal relations and explanation of phenomena. Of this book Sir Isaac Newton said "It was a model of logical arrangement and terse statement, -a work of science and genius." (73a.) He treated mainly the physical and mathematical elements, and included reference to mankind only to catch the interest of the general reader. His plan was far in advance of his time, and he was the first to recognize the value of comparison as a method of study and the influence of relief, and systematically to trace the causes and effects of geographical phenomena. His method was adopted in general and given special application to human life by Kant in his lectures on physical geography in 1765. It was carried out to greater completeness by Humboldt in his "Kosmos" in 1845-58. Ritter combined the purely scientific view with that emphasizing man as the chief object of interest in the world. In his "Comparative Geography" he made the idea of comparison, so long before advocated by Varenius, important in the study of the earth as the home of man. The works of Humboldt and Ritter stand in relation to modern times in about the same position as did the works of Strabo and Ptolemy to the Greek period of civilization.

During the last hundred years text-books on geography have been too numerous to allow detailed description here. In general they fall into three classes in regard to their content or method; viz., I. Texts covering special fields of geography, such as physical geography, commercial geography, anthropogeography, etc.; 2. General school geographies which develop the subject according to a conventional sequence; and 3. School texts which treat the subject more in accordance with the development of geographic forms. We can here consider only the last two classes.

Those texts which treat the subject according to its historic and conventional development usually begin with a definition of geography and of the different kinds of geography, and then take in order the earth as a whole, astronomical or mathematical geography, physical geography, and then in detail descriptions of the various continents and countries of the world according to a somewhat set outline. This general outline was developed by the Greek geographers and has been followed to the present time with very little change. It was represented by the first American school geography by Morse, published in 1774, and is now represented by Warren's and many similar geographies.

Jedediah Morse's "Geography Made Easy" was "an Abridgement of the American Universal Geography, containing Astronomical Geography, Discovery and General Description of America, General View of the United States of America, and of all the Kingdoms, States, and Republics of the known World." To this he added a chronological table beginning with the creation of the world and ending 1774. This book was used for many years and did much to secure the introduction of geography as a regular study into the schools.

Speaking of New England, Morse said: "Apples are common and cider constitutes the chief drink of the people."

Where can we find a more rhetorical description of the climate of the north Atlantic States than this? "The climate of this tract has but one steady trait, that it is uniformly variable. On the whole it appears that the climate is a compound of most of the climates of the world. It is the moisture of Ireland in the spring, the heat of Africa in the summer, the temperature of Italy in June, the sky of Egypt in autumn, the snow and cold of Norway in winter, the tempests of the West Indies in every season, and the variable winds of Great Britain in every month of the year."

Warren's geography was published in 1872. This geography and others similar are still widely used, and need no special description. The first part presents the outlines of mathematical and physical geography, and in the second part the various continents and countries are described in short condensed paragraphs according to a set order of topics; as, posi

tion, size, outline, surface, drainage, climate, productions and animals, inhabitants, political divisions, government, religion, education, and history.

It is difficult to see where much progress has been made pedagogically, except in pictures and maps, in geographies of this type. Certainly Gordon's geography, published in England nearly three hundred years ago, is much more interesting than Warren's. The great increase of facts to be brought into the text-book has caused it to become more and more statistical. The primary geographies were simply the larger geographies still more condensed. It seemed decided that geographical facts could be presented only in this set order.

To make the dry facts of these geographies interesting the use of pictures and drawing were emphasized. Geographies in rhymes were often used, even in Greek and Roman times, and only a few decades ago our fathers remembered singing much of their geography.

The first book in America to adopt the principles of Humboldt and Ritter was "The Elements of Physical and Political Geography," written by Cornelius S. Carteé, of Boston, in 1856. He insists that "The learner must commence the study of geography by first learning the topography of the place where he lives, in other words he must begin at home."

"Avoid the use of technical terms and set definitions until the learner has attained to some knowledge of the facts and principles of personal observation as will serve him as a standpoint from which his imagination may venture to look out without fear of confusion." He recommends the use of relief maps, and begins his book with directions to teachers how and what to observe and teach in home geography, before placing the book into the hands of the pupil. The text is very readable. It takes up the facts of physical geography to develop the definitions of geographic forms before political geography. It proceeded inductively and was an excellent departure from the methods then and long after mostly in use. It contained about all the pedagogical principles that text-book writers have made use of in this subject up to the present time.

The principle of evolution and the value of the inductive method were long in becoming generally recognized by school masters. It was only in the 1890's the scientific method became prominent in our text-books. These books insist that the child in his first studies shall think inductively, and by thinking of the ditch by the roadside shall arrive at the idea of river valley, worn down highlands, and even peneplains. Children of the lower grades are expected to prattle about sunken coasts and elevated plains, understand mountain folding, the action of rivers, and the composition and formation of soils.

The inductive method does not admit of so concise statement as the deductive. It requires the use of a wider range of facts for illustration. The scientific geographer must use facts drawn from many sciences. The children do not know these facts. The geographer in order to preserve his method must present these facts also. The result has been the multiplication of an already many multiplied mass of facts. Further most of these geographers have been content to use their method for the introductory facts and definitions, but follow in general the old order of topics in the descriptions of countries. The result in many cases is a chaos in the mind of the child. At present some authors are beginning to inquire whether after all this forcing of scientific method upon the child is really pedagogically any improvement upon the older deductive method, which had at least the merit of clearness, and are turning to the child himself for guidance for the arrangement of the facts which are to lead him forward and appreciatively outward into this great world in which he lives. The first geographies were cosmographies and the first school geographies were small cosmographies. They have remained such down to the present century. The use of the inductive method increased the size of the text-books, and also tended to the greater condensation of descriptive facts. It greatly increased the study of physical geography, and led to the introduction too early of inductive methods, to the exclusion of description. The attempt to make the beginning scientific and explanatory is questionably better adapted to the demands and abilities of the child in his earlier stages of growth. In the main school geographers have been neither skilled pedagogues nor persons with a wide acquaintance with nature. The old Greek geographers were all great travellers, and their works have comparatively not been surpassed. One new idea has been sufficient for a new series of text-books, and these new ideas are few and far between. No subject better than this shows how far, in the past, pedagogues have been content to remain behind the progress of science.

II. A HISTORrical Review OF THE METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.

The development of the teaching of a subject goes through the same general stages as the subject but may be far behind it in progress. Teaching is one of the most conservative of the arts. It is the last generally to accept and to absorb the principles established by the sciences. It may sometimes persist in going in the face of facts known to science and fundamental to its ultimate success. What is true of education in general is perhaps even more true of instruction in geography, the oldest