of all the sciences and in all ages the most comprehensive, yet taught for thousands of years with little or no regard for psychological laws or pedagogical methods, and often in the face of truth or scientific progress even in its own field.

We have seen that the text-books in use up to the present time follow the same general outline of procedure as that established by the Greek geographers two thousand years ago, and are but little improved. During the past century the methods of teaching geography, at least in theory, have, however, been in advance of the text-books. This is to be accounted for by the fact that the principles of the methods of teaching were established by great educational and scientific leaders, while the textbooks have been written mainly by men who lacked scientific spirit, or pedagogical insight and training, or both.

We shall here sketch the growth of the theories and methods of geographical instruction from the Greeks to modern times, emphasizing the general lines of progress and the ideas of those educators and geographers who have done most directly to influence instruction in geography.

Strabo, the great Greek geographer, whose work is the first to come down to us, criticised the methods of the "ancient geographers" and emphasized the importance of observation and general orientation of the student of geography. He recommended the use of fables and myths to animate geography, and considered them to be a great stimulus to learning, especially if they included the marvellous.

"Man is eager after knowledge, and the love of legend is but a prelude thereto. . . . . A charm hangs round whatever is new and hitherto unknown, inspiring us with a desire to become acquainted with it, and when the wonderful and the marvellous are likewise present, our delight is increased until it becomes a philtre of study. To children we are obliged to hold out such inducements in order that in riper years, when the mind is powerful and no longer needs such stimulants, it may be prepared to enter the study of actual realities." (85, I, 29; 51-5.)

His emphasis on observation and scientific treatment was forgotten, but his myths and tales, instead of being used to stimulate children, were taken for facts by adults through the superstitious, submissive, introspective dark ages until the great geographical discoveries fully awakened western Europe.

In this Greek period we have also developed two general modes of procedure, the historic and the scientific, in the investigation and the teaching of geographical facts. On the one hand there were those who, being exact and methodical in thought, supplied, through astronomy and geometry, ideas of the form and size of the earth, who measured the land masses, established longitude and latitude, and investigated the forms of relief with their causes and influences, according as far as

possible to the methods of exact science. (89a-16.) Eratosthenes and Ptolemy belong to this class. This method was revived in Europe only with the translation of Ptolemy's geography in the 15th century. It was given a distinctly modern turn by Varenius in the 17th century and carried to completeness by Humboldt and modern scientific geographers.

On the other hand, others were more humanistic, who, though interested in geography, often used it mainly as an aid in the study of history and anthropology. Herodotus, "the father of history," recognized the connection of geography and history. The great Greek historian, Thucydides, used geography to illustrate history. Strabo in general emphasized this side of geography. He tried to correlate the conditions of the land with the conditions of the people, and to show how the former had aided or hindered progress. (89a-17.)

For the next two thousand years geography was subordinate to history. Even to-day, in the larger number of the higher schools of Europe, geography belongs to the chair of philosophy and arts, and is usually taught by a teacher of history. Herder called history "the geography of a particular period and people set into motion." (51-60.) Kant claimed geography to be the basis of history. Ritter made man the centre of all geographical study as theologically man was of the universe. To-day the most common definition of geography is "the study of the earth as the home of man." Instruction in geography during the past century has fluctuated between these two general phases of geographical study, which have had very great influence on both its method and its content.

During the dark ages and until the books of Strabo and Ptolemy were translated in the fifteenth century, geography was commonly taught in the schools under Geometry. Some idea of the content and method is given by Alcuin in the following:

"Anon the master turns his gaze on high

To view the travailing sun and moon, the sky

In order turning, with its planets seven

And starry hosts that keep the heaven.

The storms at sea, the earthquake's shock, the race

Of men and beasts, the flying fowl they trace;

Or the laws of numbers bend their mind

And search till Easter's annual day they find!" (89b-32, 35.)

The discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo and the voyages of Columbus and Magellan did much to awaken inquiry and stimulate observation of nature. Bacon did much to make investigation systematic and inductive. Rabelais was one of the first to direct his pupils to the study of geographical facts by direct observation.

UNIVERSITY

Rabelais admonished his pupil as follows: "As for knowledge of the works of nature, I would have thee devote thyself to them so that there is no sea, river, or spring of which thou knowest not the fishes; all the birds of the air, all the trees of the forest or orchard, all the herbs of the field, all the metals hid in the bowels of the earth, all the precious metals in the East and the South; let nothing be unknown to thee." (78a-68.)

Comenius reflected and applied the principles of Bacon to the selection, arrangement of materials; and the methods of teaching. He demanded that instruction begin with sense perception, the observation of things, and the study of nature. He is the father of "Home Geography." He was the first to make the knowledge of the home, gained by personal observation, the basis of the study of the country and of the world. Much that was demanded by Comenius for primary instruction in geography is still being demanded to-day. He was the first to recognize the importance of geography as a school study, and it is partly due to his influence that Germany has given this subject a prominent place in her schools and universities. (51-157.)

"The elements of geography will begin during the course of the first year, when children begin to distinguish their cradles and the maternal bosom. In the second year the geography will be to know the place where they are nursed, etc., in which they ought to know the place where they are nursed, when to go to rest, or when to go out, where the light is and where the heat is to be found.

In the third year they will advance in geography when they remember the distinctions and names not only of the nursery, but also of the hall, the kitchen, the bed room, of things in the house, in the stable, in the orchard, and in and around the home.

In the fourth they may, by going abroad, learn the way through the street or market place by going to the suburbs, to their uncle, their aunt, or their cousin.

In the fifth and sixth years they may fix all such things in the memory and learn to understand what a city is, what a village, what a field, what a garden, what a forest, what a river, etc. (74-39.)

In the vernacular school the pupils "should learn the most important facts of cosmography, such as the spherical shape of the heavens, the globular shape of the earth suspended in their midst, the tides of the ocean, the shapes of the seas, the courses of the rivers, the principal divisions of the earth, and the chief kingdoms of Europe, and in particular, the cities, mountains, rivers and other remarkable features of their own country." (31.)

Locke regarded geography as the science of observation, and urged the use of globes and maps, combining progressively geography with arithmetic and geometry. (64-156.)

He would begin with "learning the Figure of the Globe, the Situation and Boundaries of the four Parts of the World, and that of the particular Kingdoms and Countries,-being only an Exercise of the Eyes and Memory, a Child with Pleasure will learn and retain them. And this is so certain that I now live in a House with a Child whom his Mother has so well instructed in this way in Geography that he

knew the Limits of the four Parts of the World, could readily point, being ask'd, to any Country on the Globe, or any County in the Map of England; knew all the great Rivers, Promontories, Straits, and Bays in the World, and could find the Longitude and Latitude of any Place, before he was six Years old. These things that he will thus learn by Sight and have in his Memory, are not all, I confess, that he is to learn on the Globes. But yet it is a good Step and Preparation to it, and will make the Remainder much easier when his Judgment is grown ripe enough for it."

Locke, although emphasizing observation, meant the observation of maps and globes and not of nature. His method is the opposite of that recommended by Comenius. Locke begins with the study of the earth as a whole, of globes and maps, and finally of the home country. This is called the analytical method. Comenius used the synthetical method, beginning with the familiar and gradually, through widening spheres of experience, leading the child to the distant and unknown. The analytical method follows the lines of the logical development of the subject, placing the mathematical and physical before the descriptive. It is the method followed by the ancient geographers, and by nearly all writers of geographical text-books up to the present time. Its arrangement of topics takes little account of the pedagogical order and psychological difficulties of teaching. On the other hand, the synthetical method attempts to arrange the materials according to the interests and mental capacity of the child, leading the pupil forward on the basis of his own experience. Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Ritter, Diesterweg, and others follow this line of development, which is more in accord with the genetic development of the mind of the child.

Francke, in the padagogium of Glaucha in 1702, made geography an independent study. He was the first to take pupils on excursions, although they were not wholly for the study of geography. On clear evenings the pupils were taken out to observe the stars. He used Hubner's "School Atlas" and "Questions" as text-books because they were written in German. He also combined geographical instruction with the reading of news, requiring the pupils to find on the maps the various places mentioned.

The rules of the Waldeck School, founded by Francke in 1704, contain the following: "Geography shall not be postponed until the highest class, but shall be taught in the lowest classes to make a beginning, because it is a pleasant study and a matter of memory; also, as experience has shown, it can be comprehended somewhat even by children six years of age. It will, however, be wise to proceed in this manner that the pupils be not themselves required to read a geographical book, but allowed only to see the maps, and to be shown thereon one part of the world after another and the countries and cities therein represented. The teacher, however, may use the book for himself." (51-23.)

Francke insisted on these principles in all geographical instruction: 1. Above all, Non multa, sed multum; 2. The pupil must know the political divisions first; 3. The pupil must learn the names of places, repeat them in series, and find them on the map, the teacher must give the Latin names and the points of interest; 4. Next the boundaries, rivers, chief districts, and cities must be studied; 5. Finally, "That which belongs to the consideration of the historical, political, ecclesiastical, and physical can, even in the largest kingdoms, be completed in a single hour;" The methods of Glaucha and Waldeck became examples for most of the schools of Germany. (58a, II-2.)

Francke's method of learning lists of names and copying maps was strongly condemned by Rousseau, who emphasized beginning by observation of the home surroundings. (79, III-257.)

"I assert that no ten-year-old child, who has had two years of instruction in geography, can find, by the rules given him, the way from Paris to St. Denis; indeed, that he could not in his father's garden find his way about according to a plan without making a mistake; and these are the scholars who know to a hair where are Pekin, Ispahan, Mexico, and all the lands of the earth."

Rather "Let the child see the rivulet, the little lake or pond, the little hill or meadow, and then let these products of observation be developed by the help of the imagination, into rivers and lakes, mountains and prairies."

"Geographical instruction should begin with the house and the place of abode. The pupil should draw maps of the neighborhood to learn how they are made and what they show."

"For Émile the first two points of geography shall be the city where he lives and the country residence of his father, then the intermediate places, and the river of the vicinity." (Émile, Bk. II.)

Basedow followed out and put into practice these ideas of Rousseau. In his "Elementary Book" he said "It is practical to begin with a sketch of a room, a house, a town, and a wellknown neighborhood, and then to go to a map of a country and so on to a continent." He wished all the senses to be exercised. He greatly favored illustration by maps, pictures, models, and products. He had a school museum for these things. He constructed two hemispheres in a field so large that pupils could walk on them. He was also a pioneer in illustrating geographical text-books. His books, which contained one hundred copper plates, were the first illustrated text-books for use of classes in geography, and have been called the "Orbis Pictus" of the 18th century. These books also contained numerous copper plate maps. (25, V-413; 51-15, 32.) The text-books were supplemented by the teacher's reading accounts of journeys, by newspaper reading, by taking imaginary journeys. The pupils were not required to memorize