give more than one course, while at ten of the larger universities, several courses are given. Seventeen courses are given at the University of Chicago, which include several in economic geography and a course in botany, in zoölogy, and in meteorology. Six courses are given at Columbia, including several courses in methods, six courses at the University of California, including several courses in commercial geography, and five courses, mainly in physiography in Cornell, University of Nebraska, and Harvard University. There are no courses in the history of geography, which is so generally given in European Universities. The main emphasis is upon physical geography. The relation of geography to life, especially that of man, and to history is not so much emphasized as it should be. Cartography has little or no place. Commercial geography is taught in the Universities of Pennsylvania, Nebraska, Chicago and California, and Louisiana State University. Courses in the theory and practice of teaching geography in elementary and high schools are given in the Teacher's College in Columbia University, and courses in teaching physical geography are given in the Universities of Michigan, Nebraska, Chicago, and Harvard. Only the University of Chicago has a separate department in geography.

In all these universities and in many colleges geography is taught by a professor, but in most cases the professor does not give his whole time to the subject.

Geography as a physical science closely related to life should have a more prominent place in our colleges and universities. In most discussions of the general progress of life, whether of plant or animal, in whatever stage of development, the influence of the geographical environment is more and more recognized as a determining factor. The geography of any particular age or species is, therefore, the basis of explanation of that age or species. If, then, biology, history, and anthropology with its economic and social sciences which deal with life in a geographical environment, are rightly everywhere recognized as proper and worthy subjects of study for the college or university student or the specialist, it is only a matter of a short time when geography, which forms the background of these sciences, will stand on equal footing with them in our higher institutions of learning. The progress during the last fifty years confirms this view. While chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, and the human sciences have been making only conservative progress, geography has been progressing rapidly. In 1871 the first chair in geography in Germany was established in the University of Berlin, while now there is a chair of geography in nearly all the German universities on equal standing with other subjects. The progress has also been

comparatively rapid in this country. In Harvard, University of Chicago, and possibly other schools, the doctor's degree may be given in geography. In the high schools, as we have seen, the number of pupils studying physical geography is far larger than that of any other natural science. When the nature of geography as a science is more fully understood, the same general tendency may be found in the colleges and universities.

For improvement of the work in geography in the colleges, special professors should be secured and allowed to give their whole time to the subject, and proper laboratory and library facilities should be provided. The courses given should include (1) General physical geography, (2) Economic geography, (3) Geography of Europe and the other continents, and (4) History of geography, geographical discovery, and the influence of geography on history. More attention should also be given to geographical factors in the study of botany, zoology, history, anthropology, and economics. In engineering courses, elementary geology, usually a required subject, should be supplemented by a study of the physical geography of land forms, and of maps and cartography.

The universities should have ample facilities for study and research, leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy or doctor of science, after three years of graduate work, with the following special topics required: (1) Geology with field work; (2) History,-general history, economic history, and the history of geography; (3) Meteorology and Climatology; (4) Oceanography; (5) Anthropology; (6) Cartography; (7) Commercial and economic geography; (9) Zoology and Zoögeography; (8) Botany and botanical geography; (10) General Physical Geography; (11) Physiography of the United States, and of the continents; (12) Research, with extended laboratory and field work, with theses, and (13) Methods of teaching geography and of geographical illustration.

VIII. GEOGRAPHY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

The present condition of the teaching of geography in the United States in the elementary schools was studied in three ways: 1. The courses of study of cities and states; 2. A special questionnaire directed to superintendents of city schools and teachers of geography in normal schools; and 3. A general questionnaire on conditions and improvements.

1. COURSES OF STUDY. The courses of study in geography of our cities and states show first of all and most strongly the dependence upon the text-books. Most courses follow the adopted text-books not only in general plan, but page for page, term by term, year after year. Most text-books, after an outline of North America, take the United States in detail, and

the various continents in order, ending with a consideration of Australia and the Pacific Islands. Following the same order, most courses give the greater part of the last and maturer year to the study of Africa, Asia and Australia. Nothing shows better than these courses of study the power of text-books, in the present state of administration of public schools, in shaping both method and content of the courses of study.

The number of courses of study showing some degree of independence of idea is comparatively small. Of these twentyone were studied in detail. They are by no means the only cities doing conventionally good work in geography, for in many places the courses of study were either out of print or being revised. They are, however, fairly representative.

The twenty-one cities and states mentioned above are:

Rochester, New York,
Syracuse, New York,
Allegheny, Penna.,
Johnstown, Penna.,
Williamsport, Penna.,
York, Penna.,
New York City,
Springfield, Mass.,
Albany, New York,
Pittsburg, Penna.,

La Crosse, Wisconsin,
Racine, Wisconsin,
Cincinnati, Ohio,
Boston, Mass.,
New Orleans, Miss.,
Chicago, Ills.,
New Britain, Conn.,
Providence, R. I.,
Fort Wayne, Ind.,
Arizona State Course,

North Dakota State Course.

While seven of the cities mention geography in the first grade, it is mainly a study of plants and animals, with some observation of the clouds, sun, etc., and of distance and direction. Four include the study of the home; two, occupations; three, the compass; and one drawing to scale.

Three-fourths of the cities begin geographical studies in the second year. The main emphasis is upon the study of land and water forms, the weather, distance, direction and location. About one-half speak of excursions, while a slightly larger number emphasize home geography. One teaches the globe, another "drawing to scale with accurate measurement of lines." A number of the courses emphasize the reading and telling of stories of life in other countries, especially child life, contrasting the foreign with the local conditions of life.

The distinctly geographical work in most cities is begun with the Third Grade. Here the emphasis is very decidedly upon the study of the home surroundings and direct observation by the pupils. About sixty per cent. of the cities require the study of the geographical factors in the home city, and about twenty-five per cent. of these provide for excursions, and devote the entire year to the local geography in this way. A few expand the home geography to the home state. The study of the forms of land and water, and learning to read and make

maps are important requirements in nearly all courses. A few courses include the globe, the continents, the home state, or the United States in this year's work.

In about half the courses the compass, and in one course the barometer are mentioned as objects of study. One course confines the teaching wholly to the use of books and maps. A good number of the courses provide supplementary readers.

In Grade IV there is general agreement upon a study of the earth as a whole; North America, and United States are the most important topics. In about one-fourth of the cities the study of home geography is continued. The pupils begin the use of a text-book. A few mention a general study of the continents before taking North America or the United States in detail. Several connect closely the work in nature study with that in geography, or combine geography and history, arranging the work in parallel courses.

The work in Grade V emphasizes a study of North America, United States, and Europe with a more general study of the other continents. In this grade the United States is usually taken in detail. A few courses defer the work usually done in the fourth grade to this grade. The home state is strongly emphasized in some courses. In one city geography is combined with the study of current events. One city requires the pupils to learn areas and populations.

In Grades VI, VII, and VIII, there is much less agreement as to the main topics to be emphasized. In the sixth grade the majority take South America, Europe and the other continents with a review of North America. In the seventh grade Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia are usually studied in detail and North America and the United States are reviewed. In most cities the general course in geography ends with the seventh grade. In the eighth grade North America and Europe receive most attention, while commercial, mathematical and physical geography receive some study. The study of general geography ends with this grade. In the ninth grade physical and commercial geography, are in a small number of cities important subjects of study. Most courses end with the eighth grade, so that these subjects may more properly be considered as parts of the high school curriculum.

The study of home geography, with excursions, is most emphasized in the second and third years and ceases with the fifth year. While home geography and out-of-door observation are placed in most courses as the basis of geographical instruction, yet in actual teaching, home geography more often means the study of pictures, local maps and natural objects brought into the schoolroom rather than observation out-of-doors under the guidance of the teacher. About sixty per cent. of those pre

scribing home geography also require excursions either regularly or occasionally. Small as this number must be of the whole, yet it is encouraging for it represents recent progress in an untried field of work for American teachers, for which they have had no training and practically no experience.

The study of the home state varies greatly. In a few courses it follows immediately upon the home district, but the majority favor its study in the fifth grade following a general survey of the continents, or a thorough study in review in the seventh grade.

Maps and map making appear most often as objects of special study in the courses for the third grade, because it is at this period that map studies begin. Thereafter it is an important part of the regular study. A few places, however, give map study a very prominent place throughout the study of geography.

The recognition and definition of land and water forms are learned mainly before the pupil begins the regular study of a text-book. This represents a distinct advance over former methods. The study of the text-book is begun with few exceptions, only with the fourth year.

The globe, or "the earth as a whole," is studied mainly in the fourth year, while there is a tendency to defer this work to the fifth year. In the study of the continents, North America stands first, Europe second, and South America third. In several cities commercial, mathematical, and physical geography are studied in the higher grammar grades.

As to method, a good number of the courses emphasize the study of types, and a few are thoroughly consistent throughout, giving an excellent outline. Observation is claimed by practically all as the basis of instruction, but is not really so in practice. Geography and nature study are commonly taken together in the first grades, while in a few cases geography and history are made complimentary in the upper grades. Many if not the majority of cities use easy supplementary geographical readers in the lower grades and more comprehensive readers in the upper grades. These give life to the dry statements in the text-books and create a real interest in the conditions of other peoples and lands. The use of these readers as they are improved both as to contents and adaptability is rapidly becoming a very important factor in instruction in this subject.

Summary of Courses. Taking a general average of the courses of study including several not considered in the above detailed analysis, arranged as to their more important topics, they run about as follows:

Grade II. The simplest elements of home geography, with